Seaweed stew 4 tbsp. spoons of miso, 1 bottle of detailed seaweed, 1 bottle of tofu chi ribi,? bottles of sprouted beans, 2 tbsp. spoons of yeast, 2 tbsp. spoons of spirulina, 2 tbsp. spoons of chopped cibul, 4 bottles of dill. Pour dill into a thermos and leave everything creamy for a year

Far-reaching sovereign technical

ribogospodarsky university

Institute of Marine Biology named after. A.V. Zhirmunsky FEB RAS

L.L. Arbuzova

I.R. Levenets

Algae

Reviewers:

– V.G. Chavtur, Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor of the Department of Marine Biology and Aquaculture of the Far-Russian State University

– S.V. Nesterova, Ph.D., senior scientific spivorist of the flora laboratory of the Far East Botanical Garden-Institute FEB RAS

Arbuzova L.L., Levenets I.R. Vodorosti: Uch. sat down Vladivostok: Dalribvtuz, IBM FEB RAS, 2010. 177 p.

The assistant has updated information about the anatomy, morphology, systematics, way of life and the practical significance of algae.

Primary textbook of assignments for bachelor's students in the fields of "Water bioresources and aquaculture" and "Ecology and environmental studies" full-time and part-time, master's degrees in ecology, biology, ichtiology and ribnitstva.

©Far-faring powers

technical ribogospodarsky

university, 2010

©Institute of Marine Biology im. A.V. Zhirmunsky FEB RAS, 2010

ISBN ……………………..

Entry…………………………………………………………………………………

1. Budova clіtin algae ………………………………………………………

2. Zagal characteristics of algae……………………………

2.1. Tipi tavern ……………………………………………………

2.2. Types of taloms……………………………………………..

2.3. Propagation of algae……………………………………..

2.4. Life cycles of algae……………………………….

3. Ecological groups of algae…………………………….

3.1. Algae water treatment …………………………..

3.1.1. Phytoplankton…………………………………………….

3.1.2. Phytobenthos……………………………………………………..

3.1.3. Algae of extreme aquatic ecosystems……………

3.2. Algae of the flood inhabitants………………………

3.2.1. Aerophilic algae …………………………………….

3.2.2. Edafophilic algae ………………………………….

3.2.3. Lithophile algae……………………………………..

4. The role of algae in nature is of practical importance………

5. Suchasna systematics of algae………………………..

5.1. Prokaryotic algae……………………………..

5.1.1. Viddil Blue-green algae ………………………

5.2. Eukaryotic algae…………………………………….

5.2.1. Viddil Chervoni vorosti …………………………….

5.2.2. Viddil Diatom algae………………………..

5.2.3. Viddil Heterocontine algae …………………….

Class Buri vodrosti …………………………………

Class Zolotisti vodrosti …………………………

Class Sinur waters …………………………..

Class of Feotamnia algae ………………………

Class Rafidov waters ………………………….

Class of Eustigma algae …………………………

Class Yellow-green algae ………………………

5.2.4. Viddil Primnesiophytic algae……………….

5.2.5. Veddil of cryptophyte algae……………………

5.2.6. Viddil Green Algae …………………….………

5.2.7. Viddil Kharovy algae …………………………….

5.2.8. Viddil Dinophyte algae ………………………

5.2.9. Added Evgen's algae …………………………

Literature………………………………………………………………………………

Glossary of terms……………………………………………………….

Addendum……………………………………………………….

ENTRY

Algae traditionally feeds a diverse group of melting, photosynthetic, spore-free organisms. Like all lower algae, the organs for the reproduction of algae are thinner, the body is not divided into organs and tissues. Among the algae there are eukaryotic and prokaryotic forms. The remaining ones, due to the replacement of chlorobacteria, during the process of photosynthesis show a strong sourness.

Algae occupy a common position in both fresh and sea water bodies. Being the main producers, stinks significantly indicate the fish productivity of aquatic ecosystems. Due to the increased photosynthetic activity of algae, the water becomes rich in acids and changes the content of carbonic acid. The stench has the unique property of accumulating from an excessive aqueous medium of various waste materials, and also of seeing metabolites in the medium that suppress the growth of pathogenic microorganisms. Algae, the changing chemical storage of water, often prevents purification. The acidic and acidic storage of algae groups is an important indicator of the ecological status of water. A number of vikory species act as indicators of obstruction of the aquatic environment.

The treatment of algae is an important step in the preparation of fish in the seaweed, mariculture, fishery and marine ecology. Knowledge of life, ecology and systematics of algae is basic for the development of gyrobiology, ichtiology, ecology, ichthiotoxicology; These also include necessary assessments of the water supply and production of industrial forecasts.

At the same time, new information about the fine water, physiology and biochemistry of algae, which prompted a re-examination of traditional phenomena, has been removed from the daily methodical methods. The greatest changes were seen in the taxonomy of the lower algae, where algae lie. At the same time, in the primary literature on botany, daily information about the systematics and natural algae is not displayed, and the specialized literature on phycology is not available to a wide student audience.

This first author has provided new information about the algae life, morphology, taxonomy, ecology and practical significance of algae. A description of the most significant taxa of algae is given.

The initial guide to assignments for bachelor's students in the fields of "Water bioresources and aquaculture" and "Ecology and environmental studies" full-time and part-time, master's degrees in ecology, ichthyology, and science va ta aquaculture.

The preparation of materials for this handbook included contributions from the Far Eastern Federal University and scientists from the Department of Hydrobiology and Phycology of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

1. BUDOVA ALGAE CELL

Prokaryotic cells are similar to bacteria: they have membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, endoplasmic junction, Golgi apparatus.

Eukaryotic algae contain structural elements characteristic of cells of living plants (Fig. 1).

Small 1. The mature clitina without secondary thickening of the wall (schematized) at the maximum increase in light microscope (according to:): 1 – wall of the clitina, 2 – middle plate, 3 – interclitina, 4 – plasmodesmia, 5 – plasmalem, 6 – tonoplast, 7 central vacuole, 9 - nucleus, 10 - nuclear envelope, 11 - pore in the nuclear envelope, 12 - nucleus, 13 - chromatin, 14 - chloroplast, 15 - grana in the chloroplast, 16 - starch grain in the chloroplast, 17 - mitoch dictyosome, 19 – granular endoplasmic reticulum, 20 – speck of reserve fat (lipid) in the cytoplasm, 21 – microbody, 22 – cytoplasm (hyaloplasm)

A diagram of the plant cell as a whole depicts the plant cell of algae, a lot of algae, along with typical plant organelles (plastids, vacuole with cell sap), and a mixture of structures characteristic of cell cells (flagella, stigma, atypical for roslinnyh klitin shells).

Klitinny curves

The fabric covers ensure the durability of the internal fabric until further injections and give the fabric its proper shape. Curves penetrate water and dissolve low-molecular substances in it and easily allow light to pass through. The ridges of algae show great morphological and chemical diversity. Their warehouse includes polysaccharides, proteins, glycoproteins, mineral salts, pigments, lipids, water. In the vicinity of tall algae, in the membranes of algae there is daily lignin.

At the basis of the cell membrane lies the plasmalem, or cytoplasmic membrane. In many flagellar and amoeboid representatives, the cells are covered with excess plasmalem, which is not sufficient to ensure a stable body shape. Such cells can create pseudopodia. According to morphology, a number of types of pseudopods can be seen. Most often the seaweeds become thickened rhizopodia, which are thread-like long, thin, loosened, and sometimes anastomosing cytoplasmic structures. In the middle of the rhizopods there are microfilaments. Lobopodia- wide rounded cytoplasms. The smells are concentrated in algae with amoeboid and monadic types of differentiation. Sometimes the algae become denser filopodia- thin, crumbly creations that suggest tentacles that are being drawn into the cage.

In many dinoflagellates, cover the body with pieces that are spread on the surface of the skin. The pieces can be single or placed in a circle. flowing. Stinks can be organic or inorganic. Organic buds appear on the surface of green, golden, cryptophyte algae. The storage of inorganic lumps can include either calcium carbonate or silica. Luska with calcium carbonate – cocolitis– grow especially close to marine primnesiophytic algae.

Often, cells of flagellated and amoebic algae grow in small cells, which may have an important organic relationship. Their walls can be thin and clear (some Dinobrion) or more medicinal and prepared for the purpose of containing salts and manganese in them (read Trachelomonas). In buds, there is only one opening for the flagellum to exit, but there may be several openings. When algae multiply, the little box will not collapse; most often, one of the cells that has settled will be destroyed and a new box will form.

The climatic cover of euglenic algae is called pelicule. A pellicle is a combination of a cytoplasmic membrane and the protein smears spread under it, microtubules and cisterns of the endoplasmic membrane.

In dinophyte algae, the climatic curves are represented by amphiesma. Amphiesma consists of plasmalems and a collection of compacted vesicles, under which lie a ball of microtubules. In the vesicles of a number of dinophytes, cellulose plates may grow; this amphiesma is called flowing, or shell(canopies Ceratium, Peridinium).

In diatomaceous algae, a special climatic coating is formed on top of the plasmalemma. shell What is formed from the head of amorphous silica to the shell of the shell is a house of organic compounds and various metals (silice, aluminum, magnesium).

In the cell walls of green, yellow-green, red and brown algae, the main structural component is cellulose, which forms the frame (structural basis), the structure of the matrix (like the middle), which is composed of pectin, hemicellulose, alginic acid, etc. our organic speeches.

Jugella

The vegetative cells and the monad stages of the life cycle (zoospores and gametes) of algae are provided with flagella - long and complete with thick cell cells covered with plasmalem. Their size, dovzhina, morphology, place of attachment, character of the movement vary among algae, but also in the middle of native groups.

The flagella may be attached to the anterior end of the climax (apical) or may be slightly destroyed laterally (subapical); They may be attached to the side of the prosthesis (laterally) or on the ventral side of the prosthesis (ventrally). Jugella, however, due to their morphology, are called isomorphic, if the stench is loud - heteromorphic. Izoconni- these are the flagella of the new age, heterokontni- Riznoi dozhiny.

The flagella form a single plan. You can see the free part (undulipodium), transition zone, basal body (kinetosome). Various parts of the flagellum are cut apart and microtubules are formed, which form the skeleton (Fig. 2).

Small 2. Scheme of the future flagella of algae (according to: L.L. Velikanov et al., 1981): 1 – late growth of flagella; 2, 3 – transverse section through the tip of the flagellum; 4 – transverse section through the undulipodium; 5 – transition zone; 6 – transverse section through the base of the flagellum – kinetosome

Undulipodium(translated from the Latin “whilyovik”), it is created to create rhythmic, wile-like rukhi. The undulipodium is a membrane-coated axoneme. Axoneme consists of nine pairs of microtubules, spread around the stake, and a pair of microtubules at the center (Fig. 2). The flagella may be smooth or covered with flakes or mastigonemes (hairs), and in Dinophytes and Cryptophytes they are covered with flakes and hairs. The flagella of commonsiophyte, cryptophyte and green algae can be covered with pieces of different shapes and sizes.

Transition zone. Functionally, it plays a role in the important flagellum at the site of its exit from the cell. In algae there are several types of transition zone structures: transverse plate (dinophytic), transparent structure (green), transition spiral (heterocontine), transition cylinder (sometimesiophytic and dinophytic).

Basal body and kinetosome. This part of the flagellum has the structure of an empty cylinder, the wall of which is composed of nine triplets of microtubules. The function of the kinetosome is the connection of the flagellum from the plasma cell. Basal bodies in a series of algae can take part in the division of the nucleus and become centers of microtubule organization.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria cluster in cells of eukaryotic algae. The shape and form of mitochondria in cells of algae is different from that of mitochondria in algae. The stench may be round, thread-like, net-like or irregular in shape. This form can be cooked in the same cell at different stages of the life cycle. Mitochondria are covered with a shell of two membranes. The mitochondrial matrix contains ribosomes and mitochondrial DNA. The inner membrane seals folds – Christie(Fig. 3).

Small 3. Budova's mitochondria (by:): A-image volume; B-bottom cut; B – part of the crista with mushroom-like protrusions: 1 – outer membrane, 2 – inner membrane, 3 – crista, 4 – matrix, 5 – intermembrane space, 6 – mitochondrial ribosomes, 7 – granule, 8 – mitochondrial DNA, 9 –ATP-somi

Algae crystals come in various forms: disc-like (Euglenic algae), tubular parts (Dinophyte algae), plates (green, red, cryptomonad algae) (Fig. 4).

Small 4. Different types of mitochondrial crosses (according to:): A – plates; B - pipe parts; B – disc-like; before - christy

The most popular ones are the disc-like cristae.

Pigments

All algae are well separated by a set of photosynthetic pigments. Such groups have the status of branches in the system of growths.

The main pigment of dry algae is the green pigment chlorophyll. It is clear that there are different types of chlorophyll that differ in their structure: chlorophylla– at all algae and tall growths; chlorophyll b– grows in green, charophytic, euglenic algae and in higher algae: algae, which remove this chlorophyll, always show a bright-green aroma; chlorophyll c– occurs in heterocontact algae; chlorophyll d- Rare form, occurs in red and blue-green algae. Most photosynthetic plants contain two different types of chlorophyll, one of which is always chlorophyll. a. In some episodes, the replacement of another chlorophyll is present proteins. In blue-green and red algae there are two types of protein proteins: phycocyanine- Blue pigment, phycoerythrin- Red pigment.

Obvious pigments that enter the photosynthetic membranes are yellow pigments. carotenoids. The stench is distinguished by chlorophylls with a spectrum of light that fades and, as a result, ends the drying function of protecting chlorophyll molecules from the ruinous influx of molecular acidity.

The mixture of treated pigments in algae becomes thicker: fucoxanthin- Golden pigment; xanthophyll- Brown pigment.

Plastidi

Pigments in cells of eukaryotic algae are found in plastids, as in all algae. In algae there are two types of plastids: fermented chloroplasts (chromatophores) and barless leukoplasts (amyloplasts). Chloroplasts of algae in the presence of such tall algae are significantly different in shape and appearance (Fig. 5).

Small 5. Scheme of chloroplasts in eukaryotic algae (according to:): 1 – ribosomes; 2 – shell of the chloroplast; 3 – operating thylakoid; 4 – DNA; 5 – phycobilisomes; 6 – starch; 7 – two membranes of chloroplast EPS; 8 – two membranes of the chloroplast membrane; 9 – lamella; 10 – spare product; 11 – core; 12 – one chloroplast EPS membrane; 13 – lipid; 14 – grain; 15 - pyrenoid. A – thylakoids grown one at a time, day XES – chloroplast endoplasmic margin (Rhodophyta); B - bithalacoid lamellae, two XEC membranes (Cryptophyta); B – tritylacoid lamellae, one XEC membrane (Dinophyta. Euglenophyta); D – tritylacoid lamellae, two XES membranes (Heterokontophyta, Prymnesiophyta); D – two-, six-lamellae lamellae, daily XES (Chlorophyta)

Structural photosynthetic unit of eukaryotes and prokaryotes thylakoid- Flat membrane sac. The thylakoid membrane contains pigment systems and electron carriers. The light phase of photosynthesis is associated with thylakoids. The dark phase of photosynthesis takes place in the stroma and chloroplast. The shell of green and red algae consists of two membranes. In other algae, the chloroplast oozes with one or two additional membranes of the chloroplast endoplasmic membrane(HES). In euglenophytes and most dinophytes, the chloroplast oozes have three membranes, and in heterokontae and cryptophytes, they have chotyrma (Fig. 5).

Nucleus and mitotic apparatus

The algae core has a structure typical for eukaryotes. The number of kernels in a cucumber can be varied from one to many. The outer core is covered with a membrane that consists of two membranes, the outer membrane is covered with ribosomes. The space between nuclear membranes is called perinuclear. They may have chloroplasty or leukoplasty, like heterokonts and cryptophytes. The matrix of the nucleus contains chromatin, which represents DNA in a complex with the main proteins - histones. The culprit is the Dinophytos, whose number of histones is low and the level of nucleosomal organization of chromatin is low. The chromatin threads in these algae are arranged at the top. The nucleus contains one to ten nuclei that are lost or preserved during mitosis.

Mitosis - indirect distribution of algae can proceed in different ways, otherwise the scheme of this process in 4 stages is preserved (Fig. 6).

Small 6. Subsequent phases of mitosis: 1 – interphase; 2-4 prophase; 5- metaphase; 6-anaphase; 7-9-telophase; 10 - cytokinesis

Prophase- New phase of mitosis. It undergoes the most important transformations: the nucleus increases in volume, instead of the weak chromatin boundary, the chromosomes appear in the form of long thin curved and weakly spiraled threads, which create like a ball. From the very beginning of the prophase, it is clear that the chromosomes are composed of 2 threads (the result of replication in interphase). The halves of the chromosomes (chromatids) grow parallel to each other. As prophase develops, the threads become more and more spiralized, and the chromosomes that are being formed become increasingly shortened and strengthened.

At the end of prophase, individual morphological characteristics of chromosomes are revealed. Then the nuclei are formed, the nuclear membrane fragments around the short tank, which does not break down into the elements of the ENP, as a result of which the nucleoplasm mixes with hyaloplasm and myxoplasma is created; From the nucleus and cytoplasm, achromatic threads are formed - a spindle.

The spindle is bipolar and consists of bundles of microtubules that stretch from one pole to the other. After the nuclear membrane collapses, the skin chromosome attaches to the spindle threads near its centroid. After the chromosomes are attached to the spindle, they form in the equatorial plane of the cell so that all centroids are located at the same distance from each pole.

Metaphase. In this phase of mitosis, the chromosomes reach their maximum strength and develop a characteristic shape that is characteristic of the skin type. Cause the stinks to be double-shouldered, and in these cases the place of peregina, called centromere, The chromosomes are connected to the achromatic thread of the spindle. At metaphase, it is clearly visible that the skin chromosome is composed of two daughter chromatids. The stinking smell is less pronounced in the equatorial plane of the body. Until the end of the stage, the skin chromosome is divided into two chromatids, which are no longer united in the centrifugal division. Later, the two sister centers split apart; whereby the sister centroids and chromatids are homogenized to the proximal poles.

Anaphase. The shortest phase of mitosis. Daughter chromosomes—chromatids—diverge to the proximal poles of the cell. Now the free ends of the chromatids are straightened to the equator, and the kinetochores are straightened to the poles. It is important to note that the chromatids diverge through the shortened achromatic threads of the spindle, which are locked with the centromere. Chromosomes, as a result of being untwisted and twisted, become less distinct. At the center of the cliniform (behind the equator) and even at this stage, fragments of the cliniform wall—phragmoplast—appear.

Telophase. The process of untwisting continues – despiralization and subtraction of chromosomes. Let the stench disappear under the gaze of an optical microscope. The shell of the nucleus and the nucleus are renewed. Follow the same process as in prophase, rather than in the reverse order. Chromosomes now form one chromatid. The structure of the interphase nucleus is renewed, the spindle changes from a barrel-like shape to a cone-like one.

This is how it ends karyotomy– splits the core, then it comes Plasmotomy. Between the daughter cells, organelles and cytoplasms are distributed, and the parts of them (dictyosomes, mitochondria and plastids) have significant changes. I'm sorry, I'm sorry cytokinesis- Creation of the cell wall between daughter nuclei. Two new ones opened out of a lot of rooms; The skin of them has a nucleus that contains the diploid number of chromosomes.

The behavior of the nuclear shell in algae is constantly disintegrating closure, once closedі vkrity Mitozi. In closed mitosis, chromosome separation occurs without damage to the nuclear membrane. In completely closed mitosis, the nuclear membrane is preserved throughout the entire mitosis, behind the polar zones. In open mitosis, the nuclear membrane remains in prophase. Separate the spindle shape at the bottom pleuromitosisі orthomitosis.

In case of pleuromitosis of metaphase, the metaphase plate and the spindle are not formed, which is represented by two spindles, spread out one to one in the middle of the nucleus. During orthomitosis, metaphase, chromosomes move along the equator of the bipolar spindle. Due to the combination of significant powers in algae, the following types of mitosis are distinguished (Fig. 7, 8):

Closed postnuclear mitosis

Closed intranuclear mitosis

Closed mitosis

Open mitosis

Small 7. Scheme of the main types of mitoses in algae (according to: S.A. Karpov, river). Lines in the middle or core position - microtubules of the spindle at the bottom

The centers of organization of microtubules of the mitotic spindle in closed orthomitosis can be kinetosomes and other structures:

- Open orthomitosis, occurs in cryptophytes, aureates, charophytes;

- Closed orthomitosis, occurs in green, red, brown and others;

- Closed orthomitosis, occurs in euglenoids;

- closed pleuromitosis, intranuclear or postnuclear, occurs in some dinophytes;

- closed mitosis, during metaphase the centrioles are not at the poles, but in the area of ​​the metaphase plate; You can watch out for trebuksia greens.

Small 8. Diagram of the alignment of (A) closed, (B) metacentric and (C) open mitoses (according to: L.E. Graham, L.W. Wilcox, 2000)

During mitosis, the shape of the spindle and the shape of the spindle poles also vary, as well as the triviality of the interzonal spindle. The peak of mitosis is the dark period of production. In richly nuclear cells, the division of nuclei can be produced synchronously. asynchronously, sluggishly.

Control food

1. Name the main structural elements of plant tissues.

2. The importance of natural algae cells compared to higher algae cells.

3. Klitinny covers of algae.

4. What is this? What kind of algae are you swimming in?

5. Main pigments of algae. Local discovery of pigments in algae cells.

6. Budova plastid.

7. Peculiarities of natural algae plastids.

8. Budova mitochondria.

9. Features of the future mitochondria of algae.

10. Budova nuclei and nuclear shells. Peculiarities of nuclear membranes in algae cells.

11. Scheme of mitosis. Characteristics of the phases of mitosis.

12. Types of mitosis in algae cells.

13. How are pleuromitosis and orthomitosis classified?

14. Types of pseudopods of algae.

2. GALAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ALGAE

2.1. Tipi tavern

The main type of food near the algae is phototrophic type. All types of algae have representatives that are common (obligate) phototrophs. However, a lot of algae can easily change from the phototrophic type of food to the assimilation of organic substances, or heterotrophic type of tavern. However, most often the transition to heterotrophic food in algae does not fully involve photosynthesis, so in such cases we can talk about mixotrophic, like mixed food, like food.

The rate of growth on organic media in dark or light conditions due to the presence of carbon dioxide is shown for rich blue-green, green, yellow-green, diatomaceous, etc. It was noted that heterotrophic algae grow more rapidly, while less autotrophic growth occurs in the light.

The diversity and plasticity of the methods of harvesting algae allows them to expand widely and occupy a variety of ecological niches.

2.2. Types of Taloms

The vegetative body of algae is represented glory, or thalom We do not differentiate into organs - root, stem, leaf. At the boundaries of the slan, the algae show even great morphological diversity (Fig. 9). The smells are represented by single-celled, rich-celled, and non-clinite organisms. Their sizes vary between: from small unicellular to gigantic organisms of many meters. The body shape of algae is also varied: from the simplest round shapes to complexly dissected forms that resemble other algae.

The great diversity of algae can be reduced to several types of morphological structure: monadic, rhizopodial, palmelloid, cocoid, trichal, heterotrichal, parenchymatous, siphonal, siphonocladal.

Monadial (flagellate) type of thaloma structure

The most characteristic feature that this type of structure signifies is the presence of flagella, in addition to which monadic organisms actively move around the aquatic middle (Fig. 9, A). The crumbly flagellated forms are wider near the algae. Flagellate forms dominate among the rich groups of algae: euglenoid, dinophytic, cryptophytic, raphid, golden, and occur in yellow-green and green algae. In brown algae, the monad type of structure in the vegetative stage is daily; the proteomonadic stages are established during the hour of reproduction (reproduction). The number of flagella, their origin, the nature of their placement and direction are varied and may have important systematic significance.

Small 9. Morphological types of buds in algae (according to:): A- Monadniy ( Chlamydomonas); B– amoeboid ( Rhizochrysa); U- palmeloid ( Hydrurus); G- Coconut ( Pediastrum); D- sarcinoid ( Chlorosarcina); E- Nitparts ( Ulotrix); AND- Riznonitparts ( Fritchiela); Z, I- Fabric ( Furcelaria, Laminaria); Before- Siphonal ( Caulerpa); L- siphonocladal ( Cladophora)

The looseness of these algae suggests the polarity of their cells and colonies. Sound on the anterior pole of the cell, or flagella are attached near it. The main form of the clitini is droplet-like with a smaller anterior flagellar pole. However, often monastic organisms evolve from the same basic shape and can be asymmetrical, spiral-like, with a sounding posterior end, etc.

The shape of the cell largely lies in the cell membranes, which show great diversity (plasmalema; pelicle; theca; which consists of organic, silica or foamy particles; bud; cell tinny obolonka). The chimera of the cells of the golden algae forms a kind of internal cell skeleton, which is formed from empty silica tubes in the middle. The tissue membrane is sometimes smooth, sometimes contains a variety of materials and is encrusted with salinity salts and calcium, and thus resembles a wake-up call. In the shell, small openings are created for the exit of flagella.

The polarity of monad organisms is also manifested in the development of internal cellular structures. At the front end of the welt, it is often mixed with different shades kovtka Call it the excretory function. In rare phagotrophic flagella, the flagellates function as a cell mouth. cytostome.

Their own organelles, powerful waters that form the monad structure, short-lived vacuoles, which means the osmoregulatory function, mucus bodiesі shooting structures. The crystalline capsules are formed in dinophyte, euglenophyte, golden, raphidophyte, cryptophyte algae and have a drying function. A single nucleus occupies a central position in the cells. Chloroplasts, varying in shape and structure, can be axial or wall.

A trend towards increased body size is evident in the study of different colonies. In the simplest forms, colonies are established due to the inseparability of cells that need to be divided. They watch out for colonies of ring-like, bushy, tree-like, knobby shape. It is important for green monad organisms to have power colonies of the type Tsenobiev With a constant number of cells for the skin type.

In unsympathetic minds, the monastic organisms shed or retract their flagella, thereby losing looseness, and leave themselves with clear mucus.

The monad type of structure appears promising. On this basis, other, more complex structures developed.

Rhizopodial (amoeboid) type of structure

The most common signs of the amoeba type of structure are the presence of cellular tissue coverings and the presence of up to amoeboid Rukh, with the help of cytoplasmic growths, which are instantly established on the surface of the body - pseudopod. There are a number of different species of pseudopods, which are most often avoided in algae rhizopodiaі lonopidia, more axopodia(Fig. 9, B).

There are no fundamental principles in the mechanisms of short-lived systems, which represent the frailty of monadic and amoeboid organisms, on the molecular level. The amoebic organism appears, most likely, as a result of the addition of flagellar cells to a simplified mind in life, which led to a simplified life in the body.

Cells of amoeboid algae have nuclei, plastids, mitochondria and other organs, powerful eukaryotes: they are often guarded by short-lived vacuoles, stigmata and basal bodies, which produce flagella.

Many amoeboid organisms lead an attached way of life. The stinks can be small ones of different shapes and structures: thin, soft or coarse, thick.

The amoeboid type of body has less wide extensions than the monadian type. Wine is less likely to be found near golden and yellow-green algae.

Palmelloid (hemiomonad) type of structure

Characteristic of this type of structure is the combination of indestructible growth life with the presence of cellular organs that control monadic organisms: short-lived vacuoles, stigma, flagella. Thus, vegetative cells can produce flagella, due to which the stench is interspersed between the colonial mucus, and the flagella are stored in intact cells with a greatly reduced appearance.

Palmeloid (hemiomonad) type cells are characterized by polar budova. Sometimes the cliques stay near the budinochkas.

Hemimonad algae often form colonies. In the simplest form, the mucus is structureless, and the cells grow in it without any order. Further arrangement of such colonies manifests itself as both differentiation of mucus and more ordered spreading of cells in the middle of mucus. The most foldingly molded colonies of the dendro-like type (serial Hydrurus) (Fig. 9, U).

The palmelloid (hemiomonadian) type of structure was an important step in the morphological evolution of algae from the straight monadial to the typical algae non-romantic forms.

Cocoid type of structure

This type is consumed by unicellular and colonial algae, which is indestructible in the vegetative state. Cells of the cocoid type are covered with a shell and form a protoplast of the plant type (tonoplast without short-lived vacuoles, stigmas, flagella). The loss of the sign of the monadic structure of the living cells in the organisms that lead the growing unruly way of life, the addition of new structures that are powerful to the growing cells - the onset of a great period in the evolution of algae behind the growing type.

The great spread of algae of the cocoid type of structure is associated with the presence of cliniform curves. The curves indicate the presence of various types of cells: round, egg-shaped, spindle-shaped, elliptical, cylindrical, star-scapulate, spiral-shaped, pear-shaped, etc. The variety of forms also multiplies due to the sculptural embellishments of the body’s covers – spikes, spines, bristles.

Some algae create colonies of various forms, in some cells with or without the help of mucus.

This type of structure is widely expanded in all species of eukaryotic algae (besides the Euglenaceae).

In evolutionary terms, the cocoid structure can be the origin for the emergence of rich cell thalli, and can lead to siphonal and siphonocladal types of structure (Fig. 9, G, D).

Trichal (nitpartial) type of structure

A characteristic feature of the filament type of structure is the filament-like spreading of unruly cells, which are formed by the vegetative layer as a result of the cell division, which is important in one plane. Clusters of threads wobble in the polar direction and can grow in only one direction, which is avoided by the entire nuclear spindle.

In the simplest species, the thin structures are formed from cells that are morphologically similar one to one. At the same time, in a lot of algae on the plots of threads that thin or expand to the ends, the threads are divided into shapes different from others. In this case, the lower leg, lacking chloroplasts, often turns into a barless rhizoid or foot. Threads can be simple or untied, single-row or multi-row, long-lasting or attached.

Partial type of structure of representations of the middle green, red, yellow-green, golden algae (Fig. 9, E).

Heterotrichal (various) type of structure

Various types of vines based on the thread type. The thallus often consists of horizontal threads that spread along the substrate, which perform the function of attachment, and vertical threads, which rise above the substrate, which perform the asimilation function. The rest carry reproductive organs.

In some algae, the vertical threads are differentiated interuniversityі Woozley, Such are the whorls of barrel heels that are also used for the member of the Budov. In addition, additional threads can be added to the knots to cover the cow between the knots. The function of attachment to the substrate is performed by barn-free plants. This type of water can grow in charovyh, green, brown, red, yellow-green and golden algae (Fig. 9, AND).

Parenchymatous (tissue) type of structure

One of the direct evolutions of different types of layers was associated with the culprits of the parenchymatous layers. The development of continuous growth of cells in different directions led to the creation of volumetric macroscopic layers with morphofunctional differentiation of cells depending on their formation in the thallus (cow, intermediate ball, core).

In areas of this type, there is a gradual folding of the thalli from simple plates to complexly differentiated layers with primitive tissues and organs. The parenchymatous type of structure is the highest evolutionary stage of the morphological differentiation of the body of algae. They are widely represented by great algae: brown, red and green – the so-called macrophyte algae (Fig. 10).

Small 10. Cross section of brown algae (by:): 1 – outer crust; 2 – inner cortex; 3 – core

Siphonal type of structure

The siphonal (non-clinical) type of structure is characterized by the presence in the middle of the wall, which reaches equally large, due to the macroscopic dimensions and the singing world of differentiation, the cliniform partitions due to the large size organel. The partitions in this situation may appear too weak, if damaged, or if the reproductive organs are damaged. In both cases, the process of creating septa increases due to the formation of a rich cell body.

Siphonal type of structure of representations in bright green and yellow-green algae. However, this direct morphological evolution turned out to be a dead end.

Siphonocladal type of structure

The main feature of the siphonocladal type of structure is the formation of folded layers, which are formed from the primary rich-nuclear segments, prior to the formation of the primary non-clinical layer. The basis for the formation of such a plan is segregative floor In any case, mitosis does not immediately end with cytokinesis.

The siphonocladal type of vidomal structure is rare in a small group of marine green algae.

2.3. Propagation of algae

Reproduction is the main power of living things. Its essence resides in the created ones of its kind. In algae, reproduction can occur in a stateless, vegetative and stately way.

No article of reproduction

Without the state of algae propagation, it takes place with the help of specialized cells - superechka. Sporulation is accompanied by the dissection of the protoplast into parts and the release of products from the membrane of the maternal tissue. Before the division of the protoplast, the processes that lead to its rejuvenation begin. The yield of products from the membranes of the mother's tissue is the greatest substantive importance of proper non-statistical propagation as compared to vegetative propagation. Sometimes the chick develops only one superechina, and then it loses its maternal membrane.

Be sure to hide in special cliches, which are called sporangia, which vary from basic vegetative cells in size and shape. The stench arises from the virulence of primary cells and ends in losing the function of establishing disputes. Sometimes supercells are created in cells that do not differ in shape and size from those of the original vegetative cells. Spores also arise from vegetative cells in different shapes and sizes. The number of superechelae in sporangia ranges from one to several hundred. Spores are the roselle stage in the life cycle of algae.

It will be carefully divided into:

zoospori- crumbly superstrikes of green and brown algae, can contain one, two, or many flagella; in the remaining period, the flagella grow in a cluster at the front end of the superstricus or in pairs over the entire surface;

hemizoospores– zoospores that have lost flagella, but have retained short-lived vacuoles and stigma;

aplanospori- indestructible superchids, which are covered with membrane in the middle of the mother's body;

motorsport- aplanospores, which form the shape of the mother’s cell;

hypnospori- Nerukhomi superechkas with thickened shells, intended for surviving the hostile minds of the middle.

At the red algae, there is no reproduction in order to get help monospore, bispor, tetraspore or else polyspore. Monospori do not produce flagellum or membranes. After leaving the mother's room, the stench was as strong as an amoeboid roc. In vegetative cells, monospores grow in an egg-like or spiny form, rich instead of living substances and intense fertilization.

Budova superechka and types of spore formation may be important for the systematics of algae, as a result of which there are differences in the organization of ancestral forms of different groups of algae.

Vegetatively not propagated

Vegetative propagation in algae can occur in a number of ways: simple dissection in two, multiple dissection, bruncations, fragmentation of the plan, stolons, brood bruncas, paraspores, bulblets, akinetes.

Just hem.

This method of reproduction occurs especially in single-cell forms of algae. Most simply there is a division in cells that may have an amoeboid type of body.

Division of amoeboid forms. The division of amoeboids can be done directly. It begins with the convolution of the body of the amoeba, and further on the equator there is a partition that divides the body into two smaller equal parts. The cytoplasmic division is accompanied by the nuclear division. At the same time, the transition from the stiff waist to the rakhunka is retraction of the legs, during which the muscle tissue swells into a bulging shape. Suddenly the protoplasm loses its clarity, the temporary vacuole emerges. Until the end of the hem, the weave is stretched and laced, then the false legs appear.

Rospodil of flagellated forms. In flagellated forms, the most complex types of vegetative propagation occur. The types of reproduction are determined by the level of organization and the level of cell polarity. In some cryptophyte, golden and green algae, propagation by a simple division in two is formed in a dry state only along the later axis and starts from the anterior pole of the cell. In this case, flagella can last only in one cell or be equally divided among new cells. Klitina, who does not have enough flagellum, creates it herself. Most of the volvox and euglenoic algae, during the time of reproduction, the tissue membrane becomes mucus and the subsection appears in an indestructible state. In all flagellated forms that form a shell, the cells are divided into two equal or unequal parts. Finally, the old shell is discarded and a new one is created.

Division of cocoid forms. In algae with this type of structure, vegetative propagation of the cells produces typical rice under an indestructible plant cell with a well-developed cell membrane. Due to its simplicity, it comes close to the amoeboid type of vegetative propagation and results in a simple division of the cell in two.

Nirkuvannya.

The cells of the least dissolved algae have two paths of vegetative propagation: let’s just cut them in half and broom them. The combination of these methods of propagation increases the ever-depletion of small algae.

Fragmentation.

Fragmentation is common to all groups of rich-cell algae and manifests itself in various forms: the creation of hormogonies, the regeneration of parts of the soil that were lost, the spontaneous fall of roots, the growth of rhizoids. The cause of fragmentation may be mechanical agents (egging, crossing, destruction of animals), extinct parts of cells. Using the remaining method of fragmentation, hormogonia can be established in blue-green algae. The hormogonium skin can produce the cob of a new individual. Propagation by parts of the algae, which is typical for red and brown algae, does not always lead to the renewal of normal growths. Seaweed, which grows on rocks and rocks, often often or completely collapses under the action of the water. Their fragments were torn apart, but the whole structure will not be able to re-establish itself on solid ground through the steady flow of water. On the other side, the attachment organs are closed again. If such things are consumed in a calm place with a moist or rich bottom, the stink will continue to grow while lying on the ground. Over the years, more old parts die and the stems that come from them are transformed into independent structures, in such cases we speak of non-attached, or highly durable, forms of similar species. The algae change greatly: their heads become thinner, narrower and less flexible. Non-attached forms of algae do not reproduce organs in regular and non-statistical reproduction, but can only reproduce vegetatively.

Reproduction by pagons, stolons, brood brunkas, bulblets, akinetes.

In the tissue forms of green, brown and red algae, vegetative propagation swells to its completed form, which is little affected by the vegetative propagation of tall plants. Preserving production until the regeneration of parts of the soil, tissue forms develop specialized solutions that perform the function of vegetative propagation. Many types of brown, red, green and charomatic algae have slopes on which new layers grow. On the surface of some brown and red algae, brood holes (propagules) develop, which fall and sprout in new layers.

In addition to single-celled or multi-celled bulbs, seasonal renewal of charotic algae occurs over the winter. Some parts of the algae (for example, green ulotrix algae) reproduce by akinetes - specialized cells with a thick membrane and a large number of spare living substances. The stench of the building is to experience unpleasant minds.

State of reproduction

The state of reproduction in algae is associated with a natural process that involves the union of two cells, as a result of which a zygote is created, which grows into a new individual or gives zoospores.

There are several types of reproduction in algae:

hologamy(conjugation) – without the creation of specialized cells;

gametogamy- For the help of specialized cells - gametes.

Hologamy. In its simplest form, the process is carried out by the separation of two indestructible, thinner membranes of the vegetative cells. In unicellular flagellated forms of algae, the static process involves two individuals.

When two flagellaless vegetative cells are combined, the process is called conjugation. At the hour of conjugation, two cells are released, which completes the function of state cells – gametes. Instead, the cells are released through the conjugation channel, which is specially created, and the zygote is released, which is then covered with a thick membrane and transforms into a zygospore. Since the liquid flows through the cells, however, the zygote is established at the conjugation channel. In this case, I put the clitoris on the man and wife mentally.

Gametogamy. The state of reproduction in algae, including single-celled ones, is often found in the soil instead of cells and the creation of specialized cell cells in them - gametes. In all green and brown algae, human gametes produce flagella, but female gametes produce flagella all the time. In primitive algae, gametes are created in vegetative cells. More highly organized forms of gametes occur in special cells called gametangia. The vegetative cell or gametangia may contain one to several hundred gametes. Depending on the size of the gametes that are formed, there are several types of gametogamy: isogamy, heterogamy, oogamy.

Since gametes that get angry, form into a new shape and size, this process is called Isogamy.

Since the gametes that are angry, take the same shape, but differ in size (a woman’s gamete is larger than a man’s), then we can talk about heterogamy.

The subterfuge process in which the great clown gets angry - egg cellin and crumbling human tissue – spermatozoon, called oogamy. Gametangia with oocytes are called archegonia or else oogonia, and with spermatozoa – antheridia. Human and female gametes can develop on one individual (monoecious) or on different individuals (dioecious). The zygote, which is created as a result of the fusion of gametes, after certain changes is transformed into a zygospore. The rest is covered with a thick shell. Zygospores can remain dormant for a long time (up to several months) or germinate without a period of dormancy.

Autogamy. A special type of article process. The reason lies in the fact that the cell nucleus divides meiotically, of the four nuclei that are formed, two unite, and the two nuclei that are lost become angry, creating a zygote, which, without a period of calm, increases in size and transforms to auxospore. This is how individuals become rejuvenated.

2.4. Life cycles of algae

Life cycle, or development cycle, - this is the totality of all stages of development of organisms, as a result of the passage of some of the previous individuals or their rudiments, new ones are created, similar individuals and rudiments to them. The stage is ancient, leading up to the extinct individual, and the periods calmly go beyond the boundaries of the life cycle. The development cycle is simple and complex, which is associated with the interaction of diploid and haploid nuclear phases, or forms of development(Fig. 11).

Small 11. Living cycles of algae (according to:): I – haplobiont with zygotic reduction; II - haplodiplobiont with spore reduction; III – diplobiont due to gametic reduction; IV – haplodiplobiont with somatic reduction. The dominant phase in phases I and III is rich in cells; since it is unicellular, it was cooked and produced until mitotic creation; 1 – haploid phase; 2 – diploid phase

The concept of the life cycle is associated with the drawings of generations. Pid generations understand the totality of individuals that are distinguished by their relationship to ancestors and species that live in the near future, and are genetically related to them.

A simple life cycle is characteristic of cyanobacteria, which does not imply statistical reproduction. Their life cycles continue again. great) that Malimi. The small life cycle corresponds to the early stages of the great cycle and continues until the re-establishment of the intermediate life cycles of individuals of cyanobacteria. . The development cycle of cyanbacteria, therefore, includes the development of one or a number of subsequent generations of a specific systematic form: from the beginning of an individual to the emergence of new beginnings of the same type.

In most algae, this process, due to the fate of modern minds, is wary of various forms of reproduction (state and non-state), in which there is a change in the haploid and diploid nuclear phases. Change to recognize the individual between the same phases of development and establish his life cycle.

Organs of state and non-state reproduction can develop on the same individual or on different individuals. Roslini, who make super-chicks, are called sporophytes, And to create gameti - gametophytes. Roslins, building vibrations and superchids and gametes are called gametosporophytes. Gametosporophytes are characteristic of rich algae: green (Ulvovi), brown (Ektokarpovi) and red algae (Bangiya). The development of reproductive organs of this type and other types is determined by the temperature of the core. For example, on the plates of red water Porphyra Tenera at temperatures below 15–17 °C, organs of state reproduction are established, and at higher temperatures - organs of non-state reproduction. In the rich algae, gametes develop at a low temperature, below the superwater. Other officials play a role in the development of these and other reproductive organs: intensity of light, dryness of the day, chemical storage of water, temperature and salinity.

Gametophytes, gametosporophytes and sporophytes of algae may not be differentiated or may have a good expression of morphological appearance. Separate isomorphic(similar) that heteromorphic(I will) change the forms of the development, which is consistent with the drawings of generations. The majority of gametosporophytes are inactive for generations. Some gametophytes and sporophytes, which do not differ morphologically, occur in various ecological minds; In some cases, the stench changes and changes morphologically. For example, at the red sea Porphyra Tenera Sporophytes look like single-row threads that gel, as they are produced from the sinking substrate (mollusk shells, rocks). It is important for stench to grow in low light conditions and penetrate the substrate to a great depth. The gametophytes of this algae have the appearance of scarves and grow in well-lighted water near the water level and in the tidal zone.

In case of heteromorphic fertilization, the generation of sporophytes and gametophytes will vary significantly in some cases. So, at the green algae from the canopies Acrosiphonyі Spongomorpha The gametophyte is richly celled, with a few centimeters, and the sporophyte is single celled and microscopic. Possible other relationships between gametophyte and sporophyte sizes. At the brown algae Sugar The gametophyte is microscopic, and the sporophyte is up to 12 m long. In most algae, gametophytes and sporophytes are independent. In a number of species of brown algae, sporophytes grow on gametophytes, and in some brown algae, gametophytes develop in the middle of the sporophyte.

A heteromorphic change in developmental forms, if one is careful not to clearly differentiate the sporophyte from the gametophyte, is characteristic of more highly organized groups of algae. In this case, one of the forms, most often the gametophyte, is microscopic. It is important to note that the heteromorphic cycle is the development of algae from the isomorphic. The methods of development of the gametophyte and sporophyte are of great importance in the systematization of algae. The most complex and varied cycles of development are not concentrated in other algae, characteristic of red algae.

Change of nuclear phases.

During the state process, as a result of the fusion of gametes and their nuclei, a sub-warning of the number of chromosomes in the nucleus is obtained. At the early stage of the developmental cycle, during meiosis, there is a reduction in the number of chromosomes, as a result of which nuclei, which are being formed, eliminate a single set of chromosomes. The sporophytes of rich algae are diploid, and meiosis in their cycle of development is completed at the moment of formation of spores, from which haploid gametosporophytes or gametophytes develop. This meiosis is called spore reduction. Sporophytes of more primitive red algae (genus Cladophora, Ectocarpus And many others) in a series of haploid spores create diploid supercells, which again develop in the sporophyte. Superchids, which grow on gametosporophytes, serve as self-renewal of maternal plants. The sporophytes and gametophytes of the algae, which stand on the greatest treasures of evolution, are rapidly evolving without self-renewal.

In a number of algae, meiosis occurs in the zygote. This meiosis is called zygotic reduction It occurs in a number of species of green and charomatic algae. In freshwater volvox and ulotrix algae, the sporophyte is a single-celled zygote, which vibrates up to 32 zoospores, which is by weight, and in many cases the father’s gametes are present. Sporic reduction is strictly guarded against.

Days of algae groups sway gametic reduction This is typical for creatures, and not for living organisms. In these algae, meiosis occurs when the gametes are fertilized, in which case other cells are deprived of diploids. Such a change in nuclear phases is associated with the widespread diatom algae and brown fucus algae throughout the earth (which include the largest marine species of algae), and from the green ones - the great genus Cladophora. The development with gametic reduction of the nucleus, as we know, gives certain algae advantages over others.

Since the reduction subsection occurs in sporangia before the formation of the supercell of stateless reproduction (sporic reduction), then a generation takes place - the diploid sporophyte and the haploid gametophyte. This type of life cycle is called haplobiont and sporic reduction. These are typical for bright green algae, a lot of brown and red algae.

It has been established that in low algae meiosis occurs in vegetative cells of diploid thaloma (somatic reduction), from which haploid thalami then develop. Such life cycle somatic reduction Vidomy near the red and green algae.

Control food

Tipi living seaweed.

Tipi melting algae.

Characteristics of the monadic morphological structure.

Characteristics of rhizopodial morphological structure. Types of cytoplasmic virosts.

Characteristics of palmeloid morphological structure.

Characteristics of cocoid morphological structure.

Characteristics of the trichal morphological structure.

Characteristics of heterotrichal morphological structure.

Characteristics of parenchymal morphological structure.

Characteristics of the siphonal morphological structure.

Characteristics of siphonocladal morphological structure.

12. Unstated reproduction. Tipi superechki.

13. Types of vegetative propagation of algae.

14. Tipi of state algae propagation.

15. What are the divisions of sporophyte and gametophyte?

16. What is heteromorphic and isomorphic change of generations?

17. Change of nuclear phases in the living cycle of algae. Sporic, zygotic and gametic reduction.

3. ECOLOGICAL GROUPS OF ALGAE

Algae are widespread throughout the earth and are concentrated in various aquatic, terrestrial and soil biotopes. There are various ecological groups: algae of aquatic habitats, terrestrial algae, ground algae, algae of hot waters, algae of snow and ice, algae of hypersaline waters.

3.1. Algae water places of residence

3.1.1. Phytoplankton

The term “phytoplankton” means the collection of growing organisms that grow in the water. Planktonic algae are the main, and in some cases the only, producer of the primary organic substance, on the basis of which all living things in a body of water are based. The productivity of phytoplankton depends on a complex of different factors.

Planktonic algae hang around various bodies of water – from the ocean to the kaljuzh. Moreover, the greater diversity of ecological minds in inland water bodies, even with the seas, means a significantly greater diversity of species and ecological complexes of freshwater plankton.

Phytoplankton of freshwater ecosystems characterized by a clearly defined seasonality. During each season, a body of water is dominated by one small group of algae, and during periods of intense development, more than one species often suffers. So, when floating under the ice (especially if the ice is covered with snow), phytoplankton is very poor or perhaps even daily due to the loss of light. The vegetative development of algae for plankton begins in the birch tree, as soon as the rhubarb of sunny light becomes sufficient for the photosynthesis of algae under the ice. At this time, there are plenty of other flagellates - euglenophytes, dinophytes, aureus, as well as cold-loving diatoms. During the period of ice melting before the establishment of temperature stratification, which primarily occurs when the upper layer of water is heated to 10–12°C, a vigorous development of a cold-loving complex of diatom algae begins. Inflight, at a water temperature of 15 ° C, ensures maximum productivity of blue-green, euglenoic and green algae. In trophic and limnological types of water bodies, “colored” water may occur at this time, caused by the development of blue-green and green algae.

One of the essential features of freshwater phytoplankton is the high density of planktonic algae. A number of species, which are generally considered to be planktonic, in waters and lakes exhibit a bottom or periphytonic (attached to any object) phase in their development.

Marine phytoplankton consists mainly of diatom and dinophyte algae. Representatives of canopies are especially numerous in diatoms Chaetoceros, Rhizosolinnya, Thalassiosiru These actions are different from those common to freshwater plankton. Marine phytoplankton has a very diverse warehouse of flagellated forms of dinophytic algae. Even more numerous in marine phytoplankton are representatives of the common siophytes, which are represented in fresh waters by only a few species. Although the marine environment in large areas is clearly uniform, the distribution of marine phytoplankton lacks similar uniformity. The importance of species and numerical expression often appear in relatively small areas of sea waters, but they are especially clearly visible in large-scale geographic zoning of the subdivision. Here the ecological effect of the main factors of the environment is manifested: salinity of water, temperature, lightness and instead of living waters.

Planktonic algae require special treatment before residing in an important camp. Some are full of various types of hair and body appendages - spines, bristles, horny hairs, feathers. Others create colonies that clearly show mucus. Still others accumulate in the body, which promotes their buoyancy (fat droplets in diatoms, gas vacuoles in blue-greens). This effect is much more pronounced in marine phytoplankter than in freshwater ones. One of the reasons is to leave the water in the same place until you go to bed, the size of the body of planktonic algae is different.

3.1.2. Phytobenthos

Phytobenthos contains the totality of growing organisms that are suspended in either attached or unattached water at the bottom and on various objects, living and dead organisms located near the water.

The potential for the growth of benthic algae in specific environments is determined by both abiotic and biotic factors. Among the biotic factors, competition with other waters and the presence of consumers play an important role. This leads to the fact that benthic algae species do not grow at any depth and not in all water bodies with the same light and hydrochemical regime. Light is especially important for the growth of benthic algae, which are photosynthetic organisms. At the same time, other environmental factors are brought into play at the stage of this process: temperature, instead of biogenic and biologically active substances, sourness and inorganic coal, and smut - the rate at which these substances reach the point of concentration And the flow of water flows smoothly. As a rule, places with an intense flow of water are characterized by the growth of benthic algae.

Benthic algae that grow in the minds of active ruhu drive, To overcome difficulties in flooded areas with algae, which can grow in shallow waters. One and the same amount of photosynthesis can be reached by phytobenthos organisms in the minds of less light, which absorbs the growth of larger elements. The flow of water, in addition, dispels the sedimentation on the rocks and rocks of muddy particles, which allow the strengthening of the beginnings of algae, conceals the growth of bottom algae, washing from the surface of the soil of creatures that live on the algae. Let’s face it, although in the case of a strong flow or strong surf, the algae thalli are damaged or washed away from the ground, the flow of water still does not cross the population of microscopic species of algae or microscopic herds and macrophyte algae.

The flow of water onto the developments of benthic algae is especially noticeable in rivers, streams and streams. In these reservoirs there is a group of benthic organisms that provide superiority to areas with strong currents. In lakes where there are no strong currents, the most important thing is the swelling of the pine river. The seas of the Eurasian Sea are also likely to experience a significant influx of benthic algae from their vertical division.

In the coastal seas, the number of benthic algae increases ice. Long-term, the collapse and irrigation of algae growth can be reduced (erased) to a depth of several meters. Therefore, for example, in the Arctic, there are rich storms of algae ( Fucus, Laminaria) It’s easiest to find the banks of the boulders and rocky outcrops that cross the ice.

The varied influx of life from benthic algae suggests temperature. Along with other factors, this includes the speed of growth, the pace of development, the moment at which reproductive organs are laid down, and the geographic zonality of expansion.

The intense development of algae is also accompanied by dead water near the water biogenic elements. In fresh waters, such thoughts arise in shallow waters, in the coastal zone of lakes, in river tributaries, in the seas - in small tributaries.

Since in such places there is sufficient lightening, solid soil and weak flow of water, then optimal conditions for living of phytobenthos are created. Due to the fact that the water is not sufficiently enriched with biogenic streams, benthic algae cannot grow. Such minds exist in rocky bays with a deep bottom and significant depths in the center; fragments of biogenic rivers from the bottom deposits do not accumulate at the upper horizons. In addition, macroscopic marine algae, which serve as a substrate for a variety of different forms of benthic algae, in such places can be non-durable.

The sources of biogenic streams near the water are shore drains and bottom deposits. The role of organic surplus accumulators is especially important. In bottom deposits, due to the vitality of bacteria and fungi, mineralization of organic surpluses occurs; folded organic words pass from simple inorganic parts that are accessible to the growth of plants that photosynthesize.

The cream of light, the flow of water, the temperature and instead of biological rivers, the growth of benthic algae lie in the presence of algae-bearing aquatic creatures– sea urchins, cherubopods, crustaceans, fish. This is especially noticeable for the kelp beds of kelp algae, which grow in great sizes. In tropical seas, in some places, fish appear green, brown and red algae with a soft layer. Gastropods, crawling along the bottom, eat microscopic algae and fractional sprouts of macroscopic species.

The most important bottom algae in continental waters include diatomic, green, blue-green and yellow-green algae, either attached or not attached to the substrate.

The main benthic algae of the seas and oceans are brown and blue, and sometimes green, macroscopic, attached layers of form. All smells can be overgrown with other diatoms, blue-green and other algae.

Where benthic algae grow, the following ecological groups are subdivided:

epility- Grow on the surface of hard ground (skeletons, stones);

epipelity– inhabit the surface of fluffy soils (sand, mule);

epiphyti– epic- Live on the surface of vegetation/creatures;

endophytes– endozoitis or endosimbionti– to live in the middle of the body of plants/creatures, but feed on their own (chloroplasts languish and photosynthesize);

endolite– live near dry substrate (rocks, mollusk shells, crustacean shells).

Sometimes they see a group of organisms overgrown, or periphyton. Organisms that are included in this group live on objects that are either dry or flowing with water. In addition, the stench is removed from the bottom and is present in the minds of a different light, grub and temperature regime, lower organisms of truly bottom living.

The growth warehouse includes microalgae and algae-macrophytes. Microscopic algae (blue-green and diatoms) form a slimy bacterial-hydrous-detrital melt on the substrate added to the water. Then, macroalgae (red, brown and green) settle on the first microalgae along with the animals. This creates serious disruptions in the government’s activities of people. As a result, the fluidity of the ship's rudder and the efficiency of hydroacoustic devices change, the waste of fire increases, and the corrosion of underwater structures increases. In addition, slime liquid created by oblasts can disrupt the operation of water pipes, open the openings of water intakes and pipelines, and disrupt heat exchange processes in refrigeration units.

Attached by fouling organisms that hang around on underwater spores near the tidal zone and at depths of up to 1 m, in the winter period it is necessary to eliminate them under the influx of dry drying and wiping off with ice. Therefore, during the spring-summer period, grouped growth characteristic of the pioneer stage of biological succession is formed. The dominant species of such organisms are barnacles and mollusks, often algae-macrophytes. In the sublittoral zone of underwater spores - from a depth of 0.7-0.9 m to the deep bed (6-12 m) - a rich growth develops. In his warehouse, storms and algae from the canopies are respected Saccharinaі Costaria. The biomass of these great algae at low latitudes can be even more significant, amounting to tens of kilograms per square meter.

Algae-fouling can also exist in a windy environment ( aerophyton). They are favored by green and blue-green algae. For singing minds, seaweeds of the aerophyton can destroy industrial and household materials, architectural monuments, paintings, etc., as long as the stench is not protected by drastic coatings. The cause of deterioration is the products of the metabolism of oblasts, especially organic acids. The water content of the aerophyton is especially wide in the voluptuous tropics, where there is sufficient heat, volcanic waters and an organic path, which provides a living medium for their development. Bioushkozhennya from them can be significant.

Epility. There is water attached to this group. The stench inhabits the surface of stones, hard-like coverings or flat pads, or special attachment organs - rhizoids. Intensive development of epilites is observed in water bodies with a hard bottom and a fluid flow of water. Typical epilites are representatives of golden algae from the genus Hydrurus, storm algae from canopies Saccharina, Laminaria, Costaria ta in.

Epicelity. Unattached algae that spread along the bottom bind and compact the substrate. Often the stench is represented by diatomaceous, aureus, euglenic, cryptophytic, dinophytic algae, which can easily be heard on the substrate. The organ of attachment of epipelites is short rhizoids that can root deeply. Moreover, the algae with their long rhizoids develop well on a dry day.

Let the organs of attachment of the epipelites and epipelites serve as special structures - the sole, the lower leg, the foot, the mucous cord and the mucus pad, the roller, etc.

Epiphytes/episoites. Algae vicorize living organisms as a substrate. Epizoites are algae that settle on creatures. On the surface of mollusk shells there are tiny greens ( Edogonium, Cladophora, Ulva) and chervoni ( Gelidium, Palmaria,) algae; on the sponges there are greens, blue-greens and diatomaceous algae. Epizoites live on crustaceans, rotifers, sometimes on aquatic insects or larvae, worms and beetles on larger animals. Before the epic, one can see the views of green and charodic algae from the canopies. Chlorangiella, Characiochloris, Korzhikoviella, Chlorangiopsis However, most epizoites cannot be isolated from the substrate. On dead creatures or their shells, thrown off during molting, algae are about to die.

Epiphyte is the name given to algae that settle on the algae. Between the weed-substrate (basiphyte) and the weed-epiphyte there are short-term connections. It is more difficult to understand that epiphytism is still weakly instilled. Various occurrences of sub-life or lead to triple epiphytism, if the same algae that settle on other, larger forms are themselves a substrate for other, smaller or microscopic species. Sometimes, in the development of epiphytes, the physiological state of the plant-substrate is important. A large number of epiphytes, as a rule, grow in old algae-basiphytes around the world. For example, the greatest species richness of epiphytic algae is identified by Edogonia in submerged aquatic algae ( Mannik, ocheret, sedge).

Endophytitis/endozoitis, or endosimbionty

Endosimbionty, and internal symbionts are algae that live in the tissues or cells of other organisms (spineless creatures or algae). The stench creates its own environmental group. Internal symbionts do not waste their time before photosynthesis and reproduction in the host cells. Various algae can be endosymbionts, but the most numerous are endosymbioses of unicellular green and yellow-green algae with unicellular creatures. The algae participating in such symbioses are appropriately called zoochlorellaeі zooxanthelami. Green and yellow-green algae are created by endosymbioses with rich cellular organisms: sponges, hydra, etc. Endosymbioses of blue-green algae with protozoa are called syncyanoses. Often, other types of cyanobacteria can settle in the mucus of one type of blue-green. Cause the stench to vicorize the ready-made organic sap, which is the fatigue from the disintegration of the mucus of the colony of the master plant, and multiply intensively.

The most extensive endophytes are representatives of goldens (canopy species Chromulin, Mixochloris) that green (canopy Chlorochitrium, Chlamydomyx) algae that settle in the body of duckweed and sphagnum mosses. The water is green Carteria settles in the epidermal cells of the mothweed Convolute, one species of the genus Chlorella– in the simplest vacuoles, but in the same way Chlorococcum– in the cells of cryptophyte algae Cyanophora.

3.1.3. Algae in extreme aquatic ecosystems

Algae from hot water. Algae that grow at temperatures of 35–85 °C are called thermophilic. Often, a high temperature of the core rises due to the displacement of mineral salts or organic substances (contaminated hot waste water from factories, factories, power plants or nuclear power plants). Typical inhabitants of hot waters are blue-green algae and, to a lesser extent, diatomaceous and green algae.

Algae from snow and ice. The algae that develops on the surface of ice and snow is called cryophilic. Developing in great quantity, they can produce green, yellow, black, red, brown and black “colors” in snow and ice. Among cryophilic algae, green, blue-green and diatom algae prevail. When these algae are in a state of calm, there is a greater need for some special morphological structures to withstand low temperatures.

Saltwater water they took away the name halophilic or else galobionti. Such algae grow when the concentration of salts in the water increases, reaching 285 g/l, in lakes with high levels of kitchen salt and 347 g/l in Glauberian lakes. In a world of increasing salinity, the number of types of algae changes; Even the highest salinity can be tolerated only a day from them. In over-saline (hyperhaline) water bodies, loose, single-clined green algae are preferred – hypergolobs, such as the reduction of the membrane and the swelling of the plasmalem ( Asteromonas, Pedinomonas). The stench is caused by the displacement of sodium chloride in the protoplasm, high internal osmotic pressure, and accumulation of carotenoids and glycerin in the cells. In some villages and water areas, such algae can cause red or green “color” of water. The bottom of hyperhaline water bodies is often covered with blue-green algae; Among them, views from the canopies are important Oscilatoria, Spirulina ta in. With changed salinity, beware of increased species diversity of algae: in addition to blue-green ones, there are diatom algae (types of canopies Navikula, Nietzsche).

3.2. Algae from the waters of the place of residence

Although for most algae the main living medium is water, through the eurytopnity of this group of organisms they successfully master various aquatic habitats. Obviously, we would like to periodically develop, a lot of them develop on various ground objects - rocks, tree bark, parks, etc. A suitable medium for the growth of algae is soil. In addition, we are aware of the density of endolite algae, the main living substance of which is the excessively humid substrate.

Compounds that are created by the algae of freshwater veins are divided into aerophilic, edaphophilic and lithophilic.

3.2.1. Aerophilic algae

The main living medium of aerophilic algae is, most of all, wind. Typical treatment is on the surface of hard ground-based solid substrates (rocks, stones, tree bark, walls, etc.). At the stage of their formation, they should be divided into two groups: water-soaked and water-soaked. Contaminated algae Only atmospheric deposition lingers in the minds and one perceives a constant change in moisture and dryness. Water-damaged algae subject to constant water splashing (under the breezes of waterfalls, near the surf zone, etc.).

The waters of these algae are very unique and are characterized, first of all, by the frequent change of two factors - moisture and temperature. Algae, which live in drains including atmospheric moisture, often move from the state of excess moisture (for example, after a storm) to the state of minimal moisture during dry periods, if the smell of the floors hangs, which can grind into powder. Water-stained algae live in the drains of a relatively stable fluid, but the smells sense the significant fluctuations of this factor. For example, algae that linger on the rocks, worn away by the breezes of waterfalls, in the summer, when the flow changes, vologists sense a deficiency. Cool to aerophilic temperatures and steady temperatures. During the day they get very warm, at night they get cold, and during the winter they freeze. True, some aerophilic algae linger in the quiet minds (on the walls of greenhouses). But in general, before the unfriendly minds of this grouping, there were quite a few algae, represented by microscopic unicellular, colonial and filamentous forms of blue-green and green algae and, significantly, a smaller world , diatom algae. Aerophilic forms from the middle of red algae Porfiridium ta in.; stinks are traced on the stones and old walls of the greenhouses. The number of species found in aerophilic groupings approaches 300. When aerophilic algae develops in large quantities, the smell begins to look like powdery or slimy liquids, solid masses, soft or solid sludge and a quickie.

On the bark of trees, primary settlers have extensive green algae from the canopies. Pleurococcus, Chlorella, Chlorococcus. Blue-green and diatomaceous algae are found on trees much less often. And it is clear that it is important for green algae to grow on bare algae.

Another systematic warehouse is located near the groupings of algae that linger on the surface of bare rocks. Here, diatoms and waters develop, most importantly single-celled, green algae, and also representatives of blue-green algae, which are most important for these places of residence. Algae and accompanying bacteria create “Girsky scum” (rock melts and crusts) on the crystalline rocks of various Girsky massifs. In the debris that accumulates in the rocks, one-cell green algae and blue-green algae linger. The growth of algae on the surface of soft rocks is especially noticeable. The stench is created by the melts and growths of a different color. As a rule, people hesitate here, covered in thick mucus burnts. Depending on the intensity of clarification, the mucus is prepared less intensely, which indicates the color of the growth. The smells can be bright green, golden, brown, purple, or even black depending on the species that create them. Particularly characteristic of eroded rocks are representatives of blue-green algae, such as canopies Gleocapsu, Tolipotrix, Spirogyra In plants growing on soft slopes, it is possible to develop diatomaceous algae from the slopes Frustulia, Akhnantes ta in.

Thus, the aerophilic partnerships of algae are very diverse and are responsible for both a whole range of friendly and extreme minds. External and internal adaptation to this way of living is different and similar to the adaptation of ground algae, which especially develop on the surface of the ground.

3.2.2. Edafophilic algae

The main living medium of edaphophilic algae is soil. Typical treatment is the surface and thickness of the soil ball, which puts a physical-chemical effect on the bionts. Due to the local occurrence of algae and their way of living, this type is divided into three groups: ground algae, which develop massively on the surface of the soil in the drains of atmospheric deposition; water-land algae, which develop en masse on the surface of the soil, gradually percolating with water; Ground algae, which inhabit the soil sphere.

Soil as a biotope is similar to water and windy places: it contains wind, but is saturated with water vapor, which ensures the protection of atmospheric air without the threat of drying out. I am in power. which radically disrupts the soil of most named biotopes, and its obscurity. This factor puts a major influx on the development of algae. However, in other soils where light does not penetrate, living algae appear at a depth of up to 2 m for long ones and up to 2.7 m for tall ones. This is explained by the fact that some algae pass from the dark to heterotrophic food.

In deep balls of soil there is a small amount of algae. To maintain its vitality, ground water must be built to withstand unstable moisture, sudden temperature fluctuations and strong insolation. This power will take care of morphological and physiological features. For example, it has been established that groundwater algae occur in relatively small sizes when compared with similar water forms of the same species. Due to the changes in the size of the cells, their water-wicking properties and resistance to dryness increase. An important role in the dryness of soil algae is played by the formation of mucus - mucus colonies, cases and burns, which are formed from hydrophilic polysaccharides. It is often obvious that the mucus of algae quickly degrades the water when it is decomposed and stores it, increasing the dryness. An impressive vitality is demonstrated by ground algae, which are preserved in a wind-dry condition near soil deposits. If such soil is placed on a living center after dozens of rocks, then the development of algae can be prevented.

A characteristic feature of groundwater algae is the “ephemeral nature” of vegetation – the period quickly transitions from calm to active life and all at once. They also tolerate temperature changes over a wide range: from -200 to +84°C. Ground algae (mostly blue-green) are resistant to ultraviolet and radioactive radiation.

What is important is that most of the ground algae are in microscopic forms, but they can often appear on the surface of the ground unscathed. The massive development of such algae can result in the greening of hills and forested roads.

Behind the systematic storage of ground water there are various types of water. Among them, approximately equal species have blue-green and green algae. There is less variability in soils representing yellow greens and diatomaceous algae.

3.2.3. Lithophile algae

The main living medium of lithophilic algae is an extremely cloudy, thick, humid substrate. Typical treatment is in the clay of solid rocks of a chemical composition, hardened by water or soaked in water. There are two groups of lithophile algae: superfluous algae, which are actively promoted in wet substrates; tuff-forming algae, which is placed near your body carefully and lingers in the peripheral balls of the middle, which are placed by them, between areas accessible to water and light. In the world, the stench is growing and dying out.

Control food

1. Describe the main ecological groups of algae in aquatic habitats: phytoplankton and phytobenthos.

2. Importance of freshwater and marine phytoplakton. Representatives of marine and freshwater phytoplankton.

3. Morphological addition of algae to the planktonic way of life.

4. Seasonal changes in bright and cold indicators of freshwater phytoplankton.

5. Importance of freshwater and marine phytobenthos. Systematic warehouse of marine and freshwater phytobenthos.

6. Ecological groups of phytobenthos according to their relationship to the substrate (epility, epipelity, epiphyte, endophyte).

7. What is this growth? What kind of algae can form this ecological group?

8. Aerophilic algae. Pristosuvannya to the extreme minds of the middle. Systematic storage of surface water.

9. Edafophilic algae. Pristosuvannya to the minds of the middle. Systematic storage of ground algae.

10. Lithophile algae.

4. THE ROLE OF ALGAE IN NATURE IS ITS PRACTICALLY SIGNIFICANT

The role of algae in natural ecosystems. In aquatic biocenoses, algae play the role of producers. Vikorist and the energy of light, stinks can synthesize organic speech from inorganic ones. According to radiocarbon analysis, the average primary production of the oceans, due to the vitality of algae, is 550 kg of carbon per 1 hectare on the river. The total value of its primary production is 550.2 billion tons (in the Syrian biomass) on the river and, according to recent estimates, the introduction of algae into the natural production of organic carbon on the planet will increase from 26 to 90%. The role of algae in the nitrogen cycle is important. The stench of these products is both organic (amino acids, amino acids, amides) and inorganic (ammonium and nitrates) due to nitrogen. A unique group is represented by blue-green algae, which locally fix gas-like nitrogen, converting it into compounds accessible to other algae.

Algae - produce sourness. Algae in the process of its life shows sourness, which is necessary for the detoxification of aquatic organisms. In aquatic environments (especially seas and oceans), algae are practically the only producers of acid. In addition, they play a great role in the balance of acidity on the Earth, and the oceans are the main regulator of the balance of acidity in the Earth’s atmosphere.

Algae is a medium for other aquatic organisms. Fertilizing underwater foxes and algae-macrophytes create highly productive ecosystems that provide hedgehogs, support and protection for a variety of other living organisms. It has been established that water with a volume of 5 liters can be supplied with one instance of brown algae Cystosis range up to 60 thousand. individuals of various spineless creatures, including mollusks, mites and crustaceans.

Algae - pioneers of algae. Ground algae can settle on bare rocks, sand and other barren places. After this extinction, the first ball of the future earth is created. Soil algae take part in the processes of formation of the structure and fluidity of soils.

Algae as a geological official. The development of algae in the past geological eras caused the formation of low-lying rocks. Together with the creatures, the algae took their part in the development of reefs in the oceans. The mudslides were closer to the surface of the water, and the stench permeated the crests of these reefs. The reefs of the former red algae appear in Crimea as the peaks of Yaili and in. Blue-green algae took part in the creation of vapnyak-stromatolites, charoic algae - in the creation of vapnyak-charocytes (similar deposits were found in Tuva). In the created creidian rocks, the fate of cocolithophorids takes place (craid rocks are 95% composed of excess shells of these algae). The massive purchase of shells of diatomaceous algae led to the creation of diatomaceous earth (Girsky boroshn), a large cache of which was discovered in the Primorsky Territory, the Urals and Sakhalin. Algae have become the output material for rare and hard naphtha-like rocks - sapropels, hot shale, coal.

The active activity of algae in established mountainous rocks has been detected in various regions and regions. The stench removes calcium carbonate and stabilizes mineralized products. These processes are especially active in tropical waters with high temperatures and low pressure.

In ruined mountain rocks, it is most important to have algae that need to be drilled. They can easily and easily fluff up foul substrates, making them accessible for vitrification, staining and washing.

Symbiotic relationships with other organisms. Algae create a number of important symbioses. Firstly, lichens work with fungi, or, in other words, zooxanthi interfere with other spineless creatures, such as sponges, ascidians, and reef corals. A number of cyanophytes create associations with tall plants.

Algae have great practical significance in the everyday life and government activities of people, bringing both profit and harm. Great, especially sea, algae have been visible since ancient times and have long been conquered in the rule of man.

Vodorosti as a grub product. People thrive on seaweeds, especially widely used by the inhabitants of deep-water Asia and the Pacific Islands. In China, the rise of algae in the grub diet dates back to the 9th century BC. e. Among the algae-macrophytes (rich green, brown and red) there are no toxic species, so the stench cannot be replaced by alkaloids - substances with a narcotic and acute effect. There are about 160 species of different algae in the urchin. For their grub, the waters do not sacrifice their richness of agricultural crops. It contains a large amount of protein, carbohydrates and fats. Algae is a miracle source of vitamins C, A, D, group B, riboflavin, pantothenic and folic acids, microelements.

Blue-green terrestrial species of the genus grow in microscopic algae. Nistok, how to serve in China and New America. In Japan, barley bread "tengu" is grown - these are thick layers of alkali-dragous mass on the slopes of ancient volcanoes, which is formed by blue-green algae from the canopies Gleocaps, Geoteka, Microcystis with a home of bacteria. Spirulina The Aztecs started cooking as early as the 16th century, preparing cakes from dried seaweed, and the population of the Lake Chad region near Ancient America still prepare a product called dikh from this seaweed. Spirulina contain a high amount of protein, and are widely cultivated in the lower regions.

Water is so good. Algae contain a sufficient number of organic and mineral substances, which have long been championed as good. The advantages of such good things are that they do not prevent the formation of bourgeois mushrooms and superflues of phytopathogenic fungi, but instead of potassium, they may overwhelm all types of good things that become stagnant. Nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae widely grow in rice fields instead of nitrogen fertilizers. It has been shown that goodness from algae can increase the similarity of life, yield, and resistance to illness.

Likuvalny power of algae. Algae is widely used in folk medicine as an anthelmintic and for the treatment of low-grade illnesses, such as goiter, nerve disorders, sclerosis, rheumatism, rickets, etc. It has been shown that extracts of seaweeds of many types contain antibiotic compounds that can reduce pain. Extracti z Sargassum, Laminaria and Saccharini in experiments on mice, the growth of sarcoma and leukemic cells was suppressed. The USA and Japan have withdrawn from them drugs that help remove radionuclides from the body. The effectiveness of such sorbents is 90-95%.

Algae as a dzherel of commercial cheese. Since the last century, algae have been harvested to extract soda and iodine. At this time, alginic acid and salts – alginates, as well as carrageenan and agar – are contained in algae.

Brown algae contains alcohol beckoning - a necessary substance for pharmacological and grub industries in the preparation of liqueurs and food products for diabetics.

The negative role of algae. A number of algae (blue-green, dinophyte, golden, green) contain toxins that can cause illness in a variety of animals, plants and people, and some of them can be fatal. Among the dinophyte algae that call out “red tides” in the great sea areas, toxic species of canopies Gymnodinium, Noctilyuka, Amphidinium The most toxic species were found in the middle of blue-green algae. As a result, the toxins of blue-green algae often contain compounds such as curare and botulin. The toxic of the hydrogen is manifested in the Masoviy bending Gidrobiont, waterfowl, in the abuts of the same people, the vininka, Vikanni, Vikoristanniy, impressed in the їzhu Mulskiv, Ribi i T.D.

With strong development - “water-colored” algae (golden, yellow-green, blue-green) can impart an unpleasant smell and taste to the water, making the water unsuitable for drinking.

Overworld growth of algae can interfere with the passage of water through the filters of water intake spores. It is clear that the accumulation of algae on ships significantly increases operational costs. Macrophytes can corrode materials on naphtha platforms and other subsea marine vessels.

The problem of fouling is something that has not been found in the developed oceans for a long time. Any object that comes into contact with the marine environment is inevitably covered with a mass of organisms that have attached themselves to it: creatures and algae. The surface area of ​​the substrates buried near the sea becomes approximately 20% of the surface area of ​​the upper sections of the shelf. The natural biomass produced amounts to millions of tons, and the production of new biomass amounts to billions of dollars (Zvyagintsev, 2005). In the biological aspect, this is a natural process that becomes an invisible part of the life of the hydrosphere. At that very hour, the phenomenon of fouling suggested to people the idea of ​​growing low-value species of mollusks in marine industries on a commercial scale ( Oysters, Mussels, Grebintsa, Perlinka) that algae ( Saccharini, Porfiry, Gracilaria, Euhemi ta in.). Algae contain pioneering organisms. Microalgae together with bacteria are created on the surface of piece substrates added to the water, the primary microspray, which is a substrate for settling other hydrobionts. Macroalgae, together with crustaceans, mollusks, hydroids and other creatures, often form the cob stages of nutrient groups of growth.

Control food

1. The role of algae in the advanced fertility of lands.

2. The role of algae in aquatic ecosystems.

3. The role of algae in terrestrial ecosystems.

4. The importance of algae in geological processes.

5. Kharchova and biological value of algae. What kind of algae can a hedgehog live in?

6. Likuvalny power of seaweed.

7. Why is it unusual for golden and yellow-green algae to grow near water reservoirs? What is the “color” of water?

8. Seaweed, as the cry of disgusting creatures and people.

9. The phenomenon of growth. The role of algae in overgrown communities.

5. SUCHASNA SYSTEMATICS OF ALGAE

The classification of living organisms has occupied the minds of people since the time of Aristotle. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus was the first who, in the 18th century, narrowed down the name Algae to one group of plants and buds phycology(View in Greek. phycos – hydrogen content logos - Vchennya) as a science. In the midst of the algae of Linnaeus, the four births were divided: Hara, Fukus, Ulva and Konferva. In the 19th century, the largest number (several thousand) of current algae canopies were described. The abundance of new canopies necessitated grouping into a high-ranking taxon. Pochatkov's classification tests were based on the current signs of melting. The first to recognize the melting of algae as a fundamental sign for the establishment of great taxonomic groups, or megataxa, according to the English teachings of V. Harvey (Harvey, 1836). We saw great series: Chlorospermeae – green algae, Melanospermeae – brown algae and Rhodospermeae – red algae. Later, the stinks were renamed into Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.

The foundations of the daily systematics of algae were laid in the first half of the 20th century by the Czech scientist A. Pascher. We installed 10 classes of algae: Blue-greens, Chervoni, Zelenia, Zolotisti, Yellow-greens, Diatoms, Buri, Dinophytos, Cryptophytos and Euglenovs. The skin class is characterized by a specific set of pigments, reserve products and fumes. These constant differences between the great taxa prompted them to be viewed as independent phylogenetic groups, not subject to sporidity, and to be considered under the concept of algae - Algae as a distinct taxonomic one ici.

Thus, the word “algae” actually means not systematically, but ecologically, and literally means “those that grow near water.” Algae are low algae that contain a large amount of chlorophyll, creating phototrophic food and living near water. All algae, except charophytic algae, in the form of higher algae, do not stain rich cellular organs with covers from sterile cells.

Today's systems compete head-to-head over the number of megataxa - branches and kingdoms. The number of branches varies from 4 to 10-12. In the Russian phycological literature, the most important class is similar to the cutaneous one. In foreign literature there is a tendency towards an enlargement of branches and, apparently, a change in their number.

Parker's scheme (Parker, 1982) is the most extensive among classification systems. She recognizes the division between prokaryotic and eukaryotic forms. In prokaryotic forms, cells have daily organelles marked with membranes. Bacteria and Cyanophyta (Cyanobacteria) are referred to as prokaryotes. Eukaryotic forms include all other algae and plants. The water has been crushed for a long time and the subject is a super-sink. Harvey (Harvey, 1836) added algae to the perennial waters. Although we want to know more about our skin, the composition of pigments, biochemical and structural features of our tissue is given greater importance. P. Silva (Silva, 1982) distinguishes 16 main classes. The classes are divided by pigmentation, reserve products, features of the cell wall and the ultrastructure of flagella, nucleus, chloroplasts, pyrenoids and glasses.

New information on the ultrastructure of algae, obtained in the last decade using the methods of electron microscopy, genetics and molecular biology, makes it possible to trace the most detailed details of the biological environment. “Bubbles” of information periodically prompt new revisions of tired traditional statements about the systematics of algae. The constant availability of new information stimulates new approaches to classification, and the skin diagram that is being realized inevitably loses its approximation. The everyday data of these organisms, which are traditionally observed in the middle of the lower roslins, go beyond the framework of the Kingdom of Roslin. The stench is included to the warehouse of a great number of independently evolving groups. The table shows different interpretations of megataxon, which include algae. Apparently, different taxa of algae can exist in different phyla; The same fillets can support different ecological-trophic groups of organisms (table).

Over 100 years ago K.A. Timiryazev perspicaciously recognized that “there is neither growth nor creature, but one inseparable organic light. The plant and the creature are not of average size, not of the typical manifestations that are formed, resulting from the familiar signs of organisms, giving guilt value to some, not to others.” We can’t help but be drawn in by his soothing biological intuition.

The current system of algae, presented in this initial reference book, includes 9 branches: Blue-greens, Reds, Diatoms, Heteroconts, Haptophytes, Cryptophytes, Dinophytes, Greens, Kharophytos and Evglen ovi algae. The similarity to the warehouse of pigments, the photosynthetic apparatus and flagella served as the basis for uniting the classes of algae, which may be golden-brown, into one great group - Heterocontine, or Reznoflagellate algae (Ochroph itovi).

Megasystem that reaches the lower reaches of organisms