The construction of the royal road in the Persian state is brief. Ancient Persia. From tribe to empire. There will be no more

One of the greatest and oldest civilizations in the world, Persia is truly mysterious and unique and is the object of close attention of many historians. Ancient persia occupied a vast territory from the southern foothills of the Urals, the Volga and the Black Sea steppes to the Indian Ocean.

According to many scholars, this most powerful of the states reached its highest peak during the reign of the Achaemenid dynasty in 558-330 BC. e. shortly after Tsar Cyrus II the Great (? - 530 BC) became the ruler of local tribes, and later - Tsar Darius I and his son Xerxes I.

Creed

As you know, the power of any state is based on ideology. The teachings of the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathushtra), who lived in the 7th-6th centuries BC. e., served as the fundamental from which in ancient Persia was born the belief in Ahura Mazda, "Lord of the Wise", and the gods subordinate to him, called to help the Supreme theologian. These included "holy spirit" - the creative hypostasis of Ahura Mazda, "good thought" - Vohu Mana, "truth" - Asha Vakhishta, "piety" - Armatai, "integrity" - Haurvatat as the fullness of physical existence and its opposite - old age , illness, death and, finally, the goddess of the afterlife and immortality - Amertat. It is no coincidence that the following words were inscribed on the frieze of one of the Achaemenid palaces in Susa (modern Shush, Iran): “I, the son of Darius the king, Achaemenid, built this palace as a heavenly abode. Ahura Mazda and other gods protect me from all filth and what I have done. "

The Iranian rulers Cyrus, Darius and others were religiously tolerant of the religions of the peoples they conquered. The kings understood that religious tolerance is the guarantee of their calm and prosperous life. At the same time, they worshiped the sacred fire, which was kindled in specially built towers-sanctuaries - chortags (hence the name - royal palaces). Ancient persiansalso worshiped winged bulls, horses, some wild animals. In addition, they believed in the existence of the mythical Shah Jamshid, who possessed an amazing bowl, which reflected everything that happens in the world. At any moment, the son of the lord of the solar sphere, Shah Jamshid, could find out what was happening where, one had only to look into the bowl. It is not surprising that with such a "baggage" the Persians managed to achieve a lot both in science and in art, not to mention government.

Bekhinstun Chronicle

One of the achievements of Darius I was the construction of the "royal road" with a length of 2,700 kilometers! Considering that most of it was laid in mountainous and semi-desert areas, and it was possible to ride horses on it at a good speed, if we take into account that the road was served by 111 post stations (!), And proper security was called upon to protect travelers from robbers , there is no doubt that taxes from the conquered countries, collected by satraps (governors of the king in the regions), went to the treasury without any delay. The remains of this path have survived to this day, and if you follow this route from Tehran to Baghdad, then in one of the mountainous regions you can see a huge rock, on which, at an altitude of about 152 meters from the ground, today you can clearly see both huge bas-reliefs and some kind of writing ...

Scientists have long figured out the bas-reliefs. Unknown masons have carved nine captive kings in stone with their hands tied and a noose around their necks, and Darius tramples the tenth with his feet. Thanks to the efforts of the English archaeologist G. Rawlinson, it was possible to read in the same place an ancient inscription made in three languages \u200b\u200b- Persian, Elamite and Babylonian. The "page" of the stone book, 8 meters wide and 18 meters high, tells about the deeds of Darius I, about his becoming as a king who was not used to doubting his righteousness. Here are some excerpts from the text, where it is reported about the construction of one of his magnificent palaces: “A mountain cedar tree from Lebanon was delivered ... Gold from Sardis and from Bactria was delivered ... Lapis lazuli gem and carnelian from Sogdiana were delivered. Blue gem - turquoise from Khorezm delivered ... Silver and bronze from Egypt delivered. The craftsmen who carved the stone were Medes and Ionians. Goldsmiths were Medes and Egyptians. People who made bricks - they were Babylonians ... ”This record alone is enough to understand how rich and powerful the Achaemenid king Darius I was. It is not surprising that the capital of ancient Persia, Parsastakhra, which the Greeks called Persepolis, was also fabulously rich.

Paradise abode

The city of Persepolis was founded by Darius in the Pars area in 518 BC. e. The main construction took place between 520 and 460. The white-stone city was erected on the plain of Merv-Desht, and its beauty was emphasized by nature itself - the black basalt mountains of Mercy, approaching the valley from the north and south. For more than half a century, at night and during the day, thousands of slaves of various nationalities have been building the capital of the Persian kings. Darius was convinced that it was here that the mythical Shah Jamshid stayed with his cup. The city was supposed to serve religious and representational purposes. 15 majestic buildings were erected on a powerful foundation-podium with a height of up to 20 meters, of which the most luxurious were the Parade Hall - Amadakh, the Throne Room, the Gate of Xerxes, the Harem, the Treasury, as well as a number of other premises, including housing for the garrison, servants and guests' accommodation - diplomats, artists and others. Diodorus Siculus (about 90-21 BC), an ancient Greek scholar, author of the famous "Historical Library", in one of 40 books wrote about Persepolis: “The city built was the richest of all that exists under the sun. The private homes of even ordinary people were comfortable, furnished with all kinds of furniture and decorated with various fabrics. "

The entrance to the palace was decorated with the Propylaea of \u200b\u200bXerxes (Gate of Xerxes), which were 17-meter high columns, forming a kind of tunnel. They were decorated with figures of winged bulls facing inward and outward in pairs. One pair of bulls had human bearded heads in tiaras. At the entrance, the guests were struck by the inscription of Xerxes: “With the help of Ahura Mazda, I made this gate of all countries. Many other wonderful buildings were erected here in Pars, I built them and my father (Darius) built them. And what has been built has become beautiful. "

Wide stone stairs, decorated with bas-reliefs on religious and mystical themes, as well as scenes from the life of the Persian kings, led to the podium and further to the reception hall of the palace - Apadanu, whose area was 4000 square meters! The hall was decorated with 72 slender columns 18.5 meters high. From the hall, using special staircases on a chariot (invention of the Persians), harnessed by eight bay horses, the king could rise to meet the sun on one of the main holidays of the empire - the Day of the Vernal Equinox, celebrated as the New Year - Nauruz.

Unfortunately, little has survived from the Hall of Columns. Its walls were decorated with reliefs depicting warriors from the king's guard and tributaries carrying gifts to the throne. The doorway was decorated with carved images of royal victories in battles. The stone-carving artists performed their work so masterly that those admiring the reliefs did not have a shadow of doubt that the king himself, seated on the throne, was the messenger of God on earth and that the gifts brought from all over the empire were infinitely many.

Until now, historians find it difficult to answer the question of what treasures the kings of the Achaemenid dynasty possessed, and how many wives they had. It is only known that in the royal harem there were beauties from many Asian countries, conquered by the Persians, but Babylonian women were considered the best artisans in love. Historians are also sure that the Treasury contained a myriad of unique items made of gold, silver and precious stones. After Persepolis was taken by the troops of Alexander the Great in 330 BC. e., it took three thousand camels and ten thousand mules (!) in order to take out the huge treasury of the rulers of Iran. A significant part of the priceless treasures of the Achaemenid dynasty (for example, dishes, rhytons for drinking, women's jewelry) are now kept not only in the St. Petersburg Hermitage, but also in museums around the world.

Before the formation of an independent state, the territory of Persia was part of the Assyrian Empire. VI century. BC. became the heyday of the ancient civilization, which began with the kingdom of the ruler Persia Cyrus II the Great... He managed to defeat a king named Croesus of the richest country of antiquity, Lydia. It went down in history as the first state entity in which they began to mint silver and gold coins in the history of the world. It happened in the 7th century. BC.

Under the Persian king Cyrus, the borders of the state were significantly expanded and the territories of the fallen Assyrian empire and the mighty were included in them. By the end of the reign of Cyrus and his heir, Persia, which received the status of an empire, occupied an area from the lands of Ancient Egypt to India. The conqueror respected the traditions and customs of the conquered peoples and assumed the title and crown of the king of the conquered states.

The death of the king of Persia Cyrus II

In ancient times, the Persian emperor Cyrus was considered one of the most powerful rulers, under whose skillful leadership numerous successful military campaigns were made. However, his fate ended ingloriously: the great Cyrus fell at the hands of a woman. Lived near the northeastern border of the Persian Empire massagets... Small tribes were very military savvy. They were ruled by Queen Tomiris. She responded with a decisive refusal to Cyrus's proposal for marriage, which angered the emperor and he undertook a military campaign to capture the nomadic peoples. The queen's son died in the battle, and she promised to force the king of an ancient civilization to drink blood. The battle ended with the defeat of the Persian troops. The head of the emperor was brought to the queen in a leather fur filled with blood. Thus ended the time of the despotic rule and conquests of the king of Persia, Cyrus II the Great.

Darius came to power

After the death of the powerful Cyrus, his direct heir came to power Cambyses... A militia began in the state. As a result of the struggle, Darius I became emperor of Persia. Information about the years of his reign has come down to our days thanks to Behistun lettering, which contains historical data in Old Persian, Akkadian and Elamite languages. The stone was found by the British officer G. Rawlinson in 1835. The inscription indicates that during the reign of a distant relative of Cyrus II, the Great Darius, Persia turned into an oriental despotism.

The state was divided into 20 administrative units, which were ruled by satraps... The regions were called satraps. Officials were in charge of management and their duties included control over the collection of taxes to the main treasury of the state. The money went to the development of infrastructure, in particular, roads were built connecting areas throughout the empire. Post posts were established to deliver messages to the king. During his reign, extensive city building and the development of handicrafts were noted. Gold coins - "dariki" are introduced into monetary use.

Centers of the Persian Empire

One of the four capitals of the ancient civilization of Persia was located on the territory of the former Lydia in the city of Susa. Another center of social and political life was in Pasargadae, established by Cyrus the Great. The residence of the Persians was also located in the conquered Babylonian kingdom. Emperor Darius I was enthroned in a city specially established as the capital of Persia Persepolis... Its wealth and architecture amazed the rulers and ambassadors of foreign countries, who stayed in the empire to bring gifts to the king. The stone walls of the palace of Darius in Persepolis are decorated with drawings depicting the immortal army of the Persians and the history of the existence of the "six peoples" living in the ancient civilization.

Religious representations of the Persians

In ancient times, there existed in Persia polytheism... The adoption of a single religion came with the doctrine of the struggle of the god of good and the product of evil. The name of the prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster)... In the tradition of the Persians, in contrast to the religiously strong Ancient Egypt, there was no custom of erecting temple complexes and altars for performing spiritual rites. Sacrifices were made on the high ground where altars were set up. God of light and good Ahura Mazda depicted in Zoroastrianism in the form of a solar disk decorated with wings. He was considered the patron saint of the kings of the ancient civilization of Persia.

The Persian state was located on the territory of modern Iran, where the ancient monuments of the empire's architecture have been preserved.

Video about the creation and fall of the Persian Empire

Plan
Introduction
1 Description
2 Length
3 Royal road as a metaphor

Introduction

The Royal Road is a paved road known from the works of Herodotus, built by the Persian king Darius I in the 5th century BC.

1. Description

In the fifth and eighth books of the "History" of Herodotus, the length of the road connecting the distant parts of the Achaemenid state is described. Indicating which cities it passed through, the historian admiringly describes the structure of the Persian postal service and the speed with which Darius's messengers moved:

There is nothing in the world faster than these messengers: the postal service is so cleverly arranged among the Persians! They say that along the way they have horses and people placed, so that every day of the journey there is a special horse and person. Neither snow, nor downpour, nor heat, nor even the night time can prevent each rider from galloping at full speed the designated segment of the path. The first messenger conveys the message to the second, and that to the third. And so the message passes from hand to hand until it reaches the goal, like torches at the Hellenic holiday in honor of Hephaestus. The Persians call this horse post "Angareion".

2. Length

The length of the Royal Road is being reconstructed according to Herodotus, other historical evidence and archaeological data. It began in Sardis (about 90 km east of the modern city of Izmir in Turkey) and went east to the Assyrian capital of Nineveh (present-day Mosul in Iraq). Then, it is believed, it split into two parts: one led east, through Ecbatana to the Silk Road, the other to the south and southeast, to Susa and Persepolis.

Since the Royal Road was not laid along the most convenient route that could connect the largest Persian cities, historians believe that sections of roads laid by the Assyrian kings were used during the construction. In the east, it practically merges with the Silk Road.

The quality of the paved road was so high that it continued to be used at least until the Roman era; in the Turkish city of Diyarbakir, a bridge rebuilt by the Romans, which was part of the Tsar's road, has been preserved. Its construction contributed to the flourishing of the Persian trade, which reached its peak during the time of Alexander the Great.

3. The royal road as a metaphor

The expression "royal road" or "royal road" even in antiquity became winged, denoting the fastest, easiest and most reasonable way to achieve something. The famous phrase of Euclid, addressed to the Egyptian king Ptolemy, who wanted to learn the sciences: "There are no royal roads in geometry!" Freud spoke of dreams as "the royal road to the unconscious."

In Christian theology, the expression "the royal way" has been used as a metaphor for moderation. An excerpt from an article by Hieromonk Seraphim Rose:

“The doctrine of this“ royal path ”is explained by Saint Basil the Great:“ He is a righteous one whose thought does not deviate either into excess or lack, but is directed only towards the middle of virtue. ” But perhaps this teaching was most clearly stated by the great Orthodox father of the 5th century, Saint John Cassian. He faced a task similar to what Orthodoxy now faces: to present the pure teaching of the Eastern Fathers to the peoples of the West, who were then spiritually immature and did not yet understand the depth and subtleties of the spiritual teaching of the Orthodox East. Applying this teaching to life, they tended to be either relaxed or too strict. Saint Cassian expounds the Orthodox teaching on the "royal path" in his interview "On Sobriety": "We must strive with all our might and with all our energy to acquire the good gift of sobriety through humility, which can keep us intact from excessiveness on both sides. ... For, as the fathers say, extremes exist on both sides - on the right there is a danger of being deceived by excessive abstinence, and on the left - being carried away into carelessness and relaxation. " And the temptation from the "right" is even more dangerous than the "left". "Excessive abstinence is more harmful than satiation, because through repentance from the latter one can go to the correct understanding, but from the former not" (that is, because pride in one's "virtue" stands in the way of repentant humility, which can serve the cause of salvation). "

John Cassian speaks in the doctrine of the royal path about over-strenuous preservation of oneself from excessive abstinence and relaxation, but then the royal path began to mean moderation among the Orthodox, which can hardly be distinguished from lukewarmness.

Reforms of Darius I. Organization of the Persian State under the Achaemenids

The lack of strong ties between individual parts of the Persian kingdom and the sharp class struggle that flared up at the end of the reign of Cambyses and at the beginning of the reign of Darius I required a series of reforms that were supposed to internally strengthen the Persian state. According to the testimony of Greek historians, Darius divided the entire Persian state into a number of regions (satrapies), imposed a certain tribute on each region, which was to be regularly paid to the royal treasury, and carried out a monetary reform, establishing a single gold coin for the entire state (darik - 8.416 grams gold). Then Darius began extensive road construction, connecting the most important economic, administrative and cultural centers of the country with large roads, organized a special communications service, and finally completely reorganized the army and military affairs. As a result of these reforms of Darius I and the subsequent activities of his successors, the Persian state received a new organization, largely based on the use of the cultural achievements of individual peoples that became part of the huge Persian monarchy.

Although the reforms of Darius led to some degree of centralization of the state through a complex bureaucratic system of government, Persia still retained much of the primitive character of the ancient tribal union. The tsar, despite his autocracy, in some respects depended on the influence of the highest representatives of the ancient tribal nobility. So, according to Herodotus, Darius was elected king at a meeting of seven noble Persians, who retained the right to enter the king without a report, and the king was obliged to take his wife from the family of one of these major aristocrats. In the text of the Behistun inscription, Darius I lists the names of these noble Persians who helped him kill Gaumata and seize royal power, and appeals to the future Persian kings with the following appeal: "You, who will be king in time, protect the offspring of these men." Even Xerxes, according to Herodotus, before starting a campaign against the Greeks, was forced to discuss this issue at a meeting of representatives of the highest nobility.

But over time, the former alliance of tribes more and more acquired the form of classical ancient Eastern despotism, some elements of which may have been borrowed from Egypt or Babylon. Obviously, there were high officials directly at the royal court who, on behalf of the king, were in charge of certain branches of the central government: treasury, court and military affairs. The tsar also had a personal tsarist secretary, who prepared the tsar's decrees. The central government, represented by the king himself, actively intervened in various branches of local government. So, the king examined the complaints of his subjects, for example, the priests of a temple, established tax privileges, gave personal orders for the construction of a temple or city walls. Each royal decree, equipped with a royal seal, was considered a law that was not subject to cancellation. The entire management system had a pronounced bureaucratic nature and was carried out by a large number of officials. The king communicated with officials using special messages. In the palace and in all the offices, the most careful writing was used. All orders were recorded in special diaries and protocols, which were usually kept in Aramaic, which gradually became the official state language of the Persian state. The strengthening of centralized management was facilitated by the presence of the post of the supreme state inspector (“the eye of the king”), who, on behalf of the king, performed the responsible functions of supreme control, in particular in certain areas.

The consolidation of the central power was further facilitated by the concentration of judicial power in the hands of the tsar and special "tsarist judges." These "royal judges" or, as they were called, "bearers of law" in their activities proceeded from the principle of the unlimited autocracy of the tsar. Herodotus says that when Cambyses summoned them to his meeting, they found "a law allowing the king of the Persians to do whatever he wanted." The duties of these "royal judges" included giving advice to the king in all difficult controversial cases. These "tsarist judges" were appointed by the tsar for life, could be removed from their posts only as a result of a crime or charges of bribery. The position of "royal judge" was sometimes even inherited. The "royal judges" performed judicial duties not only in Persia proper, but also in some countries that became part of the Persian state, as can be seen from the Bible and from some Babylonian documents of the Persian time found in Nippur.

In Persia, as in other countries of the ancient Eastern world, subsistence farming prevailed. Most of the food produced in rural communities was consumed locally. Only a small amount of surplus products entered the market and became commodities. According to the ancient subsistence economy, the value of goods and wages were often expressed in terms of a certain quantity of products. So, for example, hired workers in Persepolis received wages in products: bread, butter, fish, etc., and there was a special term "step" to denote such "payment in products". Other slightly later Persepolian documents mention "ram and wine", which were issued in the form of wages. However, with the development of trade, these primitive commodity equivalents of value began to be more and more displaced, first by weight metal money, and then by minted coins. In the VI century. BC e. in Lydia, where foreign trade reached significant development, a minted coin appeared, which arose on the basis of the use of a much more ancient monetary system of Babylon. In Iran, the monetary system appeared under Cyrus, who was the first to mint gold coins in Susa, Sardis and Babylon, which received the name "darik" (perhaps from the ancient Persian word "dari" - gold). Monetary trade was most developed in the western parts of the Persian state, where ancient centers of trade such as, for example, Babylon flourished for a long time. In the eastern regions, in particular in Central Asia, they used mainly weight gold. However, the Persian coin also penetrated here. Persian dariks were found on Afrasiab (near modern Samarkand) and in the ruins of old Termez. A vivid idea of \u200b\u200bthe development of Persian trade under Darius I is given by his inscription from Susa, which speaks of the construction of a palace. This inscription describes in detail the materials that were delivered from various countries for the construction of the royal palace. So, cedar wood was delivered from the Lebanese mountains, gold - from Sardis and from Bactria, lapis lazuli and carnelian - from Sogdiana, turquoise - from Khorezm, silver and bronze - from Egypt, ivory - from Ethiopia, from India and from Arachosia.

It is quite natural that for the further development of trade and for the strengthening of economic ties between the individual parts of the Persian state, it was necessary to establish a single monetary system for the entire state. In order to establish such a single monetary system, Darius carried out his famous monetary reform. A single state gold coin, the Darik, circulated throughout the country (8, 416 r), 3 thousand dariks constituted the highest weight and coin unit - the Persian talent. The minting of the gold coin was declared the exclusive right of the central government. From now on, the Persian king assumed the guarantee of the accuracy of the weight and purity of the alloy of a single nationwide gold coin. Therefore, "Darius ordered to smelt golden sand to the highest possible purity and mint coins from such gold." Local kings and rulers of individual regions and cities received the right to mint only silver and copper coins. The silver bargaining chip was the Persian shekel, equal to 1/20 of a darik (5.6 r silver). At the same time, Darius also established the amount of taxes that were to be paid to the royal treasury by individual regions, in accordance with their economic development. The collection of taxes was transferred to the mercy of trading houses or individual tax farmers, who were important for this huge funds. Therefore, taxes and ransoms were especially heavy burdens on the population. The organization of economic and financial management of the country, closely associated with the growth of economic life and especially trade, was wittily noted by Herodotus in the following words: "The Persians call Darius a merchant because he established a certain tax and took other similar measures."

The extensive organization of road construction and communication services was of great importance for the development of trade and the coordination of the entire economic life of the country. The Persians used a large number of ancient Hittite and Assyrian roads, adapting them for trade caravans, for transporting mail, and for moving troops. At the same time, a number of new roads were laid. Among the main roads connecting the most important trade and administrative centers, the largest highway, called the "royal road", was of particular importance. This road led from the Aegean coast of Asia Minor to the center of Mesopotamia. It went from Ephesus to Sardis and Susa through the Euphrates, Armenia, Assyria and further along the Tigris. An equally important road led from Babylon through Zagr, past the Behistun rock, to the Bactrian and Indian borders. Finally, a special road crossed the whole of Asia Minor from the Isa Gulf to Sinop, connecting the Aegean Sea region with the Transcaucasus and the northern part of Asia Minor. Greek historians tell of the excellent maintenance of these exemplary Persian roads. They were divided into parasangs (5 km), and a royal station with a hotel was built at every 20th kilometer. Couriers with royal messages rushed along these roads. Greek historians, describing the organization of the royal mail in Persia, say that at each station there were spare horses and messengers who immediately replaced the arrivals and, taking the royal message from them, raced with him further. "There are cases," writes Xenophon, "that even at night these patrols do not stop, and the day messenger is replaced by the night one, and with this order, as some say, messengers make their way faster than cranes." It is possible that even then they used fire alarms with the help of fires. Fortifications and garrisons were built on the borders of regions and deserts, as well as at crossings across large rivers, which indicates the military importance of these roads.

To preserve the state unity of the vast Persian empire, to protect very extended borders and to suppress uprisings within the country, it was necessary to organize the army and the entire military affairs in general. In peacetime, the standing army consisted of detachments of the Persians and Medes, who made up the main garrisons. The core of this standing army was the tsar's guard, which consisted of aristocratic horsemen and 10 thousand "immortal" infantrymen. The personal guard of the Persian king consisted of 10 thousand soldiers. During the war, the king collected a huge militia from all over the state, and individual regions were supposed to exhibit a certain number of soldiers. The reorganization of the army and all military affairs, begun by Darius, contributed to the growth of the military power of the Persian state. The Greek historian Xenophon in a somewhat idealized form depicts a high degree of organization of military affairs in ancient Persia. Judging by his story, the Persian king himself set the size of the troops in each satrapy, the number of horsemen, riflemen, slingers and shield-bearers, as well as the number of garrisons in individual fortresses. The Persian king annually inspected the troops, in particular those that were located around the royal residence. In more distant regions, these military reviews were carried out by special tsarist officials specially appointed for this purpose. Special attention was paid to the organization of military affairs. For the good maintenance of the troops, the satraps received promotions, awards in the form of valuable gifts, and for the poor maintenance of the troops, they renounced their posts and were subjected to severe punishments. The creation of large military districts, uniting several, was of great importance for the centralization of military affairs and, mainly, military control.

In order to internally strengthen the Persian state, it was necessary to organize a more or less harmonious system of local government. Cyrus also formed large regions from the conquered countries, at the head of which were placed special rulers, who received the name of satraps from the Greeks (from the Persian "hshatrapavan" - the guardians of the country). These satraps were a kind of governors of the king, who had to concentrate in their hands all the threads of government in their area. They were obliged to maintain order in the region and suppress uprisings in it. The satraps headed the local court with both criminal and civil jurisdiction. They commanded the troops of the region, were in charge of military supplies and even had the right to keep a personal guard. So, for example, Oroit, the satrap of Lydia, had a personal guard, consisting of a thousand bodyguards. Further, financial and tax functions were also concentrated in the hands of the satrap. The satraps were obliged to collect taxes from the population subject to them, to seek new taxes and transfer all these proceeds to the royal treasury. In addition, the satraps were supposed to observe the economic life of the regions, in particular, the development of agriculture, which the Persians regarded as one of the most important types of economy. Finally, the satraps had the right to appoint and remove officials within their areas and control their activities. Thus, the satraps, having enormous powers, often turned into almost independent kings and even had their own court. Unable to completely subordinate all parts of the huge state to their control, the Persian kings quite deliberately left the local dynasties a number of prerogatives. For example, the kings of Cilicia ruled in their kingdom as satraps until the end of the 5th century. BC e. In Asia Minor, Syria, Phenicia and Palestine, in Central Asia and in the distant eastern outskirts, as well as on the borders of India, local princes retained power, now ruling their regions on behalf of the Persian "king of kings". This excessive independence of local rulers or satraps often led to the fact that they rebelled against the Persian king. These uprisings constantly required the intervention of the Persian kings. So, for example, Darius was forced to oppose Oroit, the satrap of Lydia, and Ariand, the satrap of Egypt, and severely punish them for their excessive independence, which was sometimes expressed in disobedience to the Persian king and even in the secret murder of the royal messenger.

The Persian kingdom under Darius I was divided into 23-24 satrapies, which are listed in the Behistun, Nakshi-Rustam and Suez inscriptions. Herodotus also gives a list of satrapies listing the taxes they paid to the Persian king. However, these lists, by the way, do not always coincide with each other, do not always have a strictly administrative significance. Despite the attempts of the Persian kings to introduce into some framework the greater independence of the satraps, which sometimes reached complete arbitrariness, the satrapies nevertheless retained many peculiar local features for a long time. In some satrapies, local law (Babylon, Egypt, Judea), local systems of measures and weights, administrative divisions (division of Egypt into nomes), tax inviolability and privileges of temples and priesthoods were preserved. In some countries, local languages \u200b\u200bwere also retained as official languages, along with which the Aramaic language gradually acquired increasing importance, which became the official "clerical language" of the Persian state. However, as JV Stalin pointed out, the Cyrus empire not only did not have, but could not have "a common language for the empire and understandable for all members of the empire." Therefore, as is clearly seen from the surviving documents, each country firmly retained its own local language. So, in Egypt they wrote and spoke in the ancient Egyptian language, in Babylonia - in Babylonian, in Elam - in Elamite, etc. by the power of the king. In this state, the Persians occupied a privileged position as the ruling nation. The Persians were exempted from all taxes, so that all the burdens of taxation fell on the peoples conquered by the Persians. Persian kings in their inscriptions always emphasized "merits and dignity", as well as the dominant position of the Persians in the state. In his grave inscription, Darius I wrote: “If you think:“ How numerous were the countries subject to Tsar Darius, ”then look at the images that support the throne; then you will know and will know how far the spear of the Persian husband has penetrated; then you will know (that) a Persian husband, far from Persia, struck down the enemy. " The Persians were united by a single language and a single religion, in particular the cult of the supreme god Ahuramazda. With the help of priestly propaganda, the people were inspired with the idea that the Persian king was appointed ruler of the country by the supreme god Ahuramazda himself and that therefore all Persians should take an oath to faithfully serve their king. Persian inscriptions constantly indicate that the king owns the Persian kingdom at the behest of Ahuramazda. So, for example, Darius I wrote: “By the will of Ahuramazda, these provinces followed my laws, (everything) that I ordered them, they followed. Ahuramazda gave me this kingdom. Ahuramazda helped me to master this kingdom. By the will of Ahuramazda, I own this kingdom. " In the palace inscription at Persepolis, Darius I prays for his country and for his people; he is proud of his ancestry from the Persian royal family. As can be seen from the Persian inscriptions, the Persian king solemnly promised to repel any attack on his country and any attempt to change its order. Thus, religious ideology substantiated the foreign and domestic policy of the kings from the Achaemenid dynasty, the purpose of which was to strive in every way to strengthen the ruling position of the slave-owning aristocracy.

However, as Persia gradually began to turn into a huge power, striving for dominance within the then known world, new forms of ideology began to emerge, designed to substantiate the claim of the Persian kings to world domination. The Persian king was called “the king of countries” or “the king of kings”. Moreover, he was called "the ruler of all people from sunrise to sunset." To strengthen the power of the king, the ancient Persian religion was used, which took a lot from the religious beliefs of the peoples who became part of the Persian state, in particular the peoples of Central Asia. According to the political and religious theory established in the kingdom of the Achaemenids, the supreme god of the Persians, Ahuramazda, who was considered the creator of heaven and earth, made the Persian king “the ruler of all this vast land, his only ruler of many”, “over the mountains and plains on this side of the sea , on this side of the desert. " On the walls of the great Persepolis palace of the Persian kings, long lines of tributaries are depicted, bearing the most diverse tributes and rich gifts to the Persian king from all over the world. On gold and silver tablets, Darius I reported succinctly but expressively about the enormous size of his state: “Darius, the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, Achaemenides. King Darius says: “This kingdom, which I own from Scythia, which is behind Sogdiana, to Kush (ie Ethiopia. - VA), from India to Sardis, gave me Ahuramazda, the greatest of the gods. May Ahuramazda protect me and my house. "

In the middle of the VI century. BC e. the Persians entered the arena of world history - a mysterious tribe about which the previously civilized peoples of the Middle East knew only by hearsay.

About morals and customs ancient persians known from the writings of the peoples who lived next to them. In addition to mighty growth and physical development, the Persians possessed a will, hardened in the fight against the harsh climate and the dangers of nomadic life in the mountains and steppes. At that time, they were famous for their moderate lifestyle, temperance, strength, courage and solidarity.

According to Herodotus, persians wore clothes made of animal skins and felt tiaras (caps), did not use wine, ate not as much as they wanted, but as much as they had. They were indifferent to silver and gold.

Simplicity and modesty in food and clothing remained one of the main virtues even during the domination of the Persians over, when they began to dress in luxurious Median outfits, wear gold necklaces and bracelets, when fresh fish from distant seas were brought to the table of Persian kings and nobles. fruits from Babylonia and Syria. Even then, during the coronation ceremony of the Persian kings, the Achaemenid ascending the throne had to wear the clothes that he wore without being a king, eat some dried figs and drink a cup of sour milk.

The ancient Persians were allowed to have many wives, as well as concubines, to marry close relatives, such as nieces and half-sisters. Ancient Persian customs forbade women to show themselves to strangers (among the numerous reliefs in Persepolis there is not a single female image). The ancient historian Plutarch wrote that the Persians are characterized by wild jealousy not only towards their wives. They even kept the slaves and concubines locked up so that outsiders would not see them, and carried them in closed carts.

History of ancient Persia

The Persian king Cyrus II from the Achaemenid clan conquered Media and many other countries in a short time and had a huge and well-armed army, which began to prepare for a campaign against Babylonia. A new force appeared in Southwest Asia, which managed in a short time - in just a few decades - completely change the political map of the Middle East.

Babylonia and Egypt abandoned a long-term hostile policy towards each other, for the rulers of both countries were well aware of the need to prepare for war with the Persian Empire. The beginning of the war was only a matter of time.

The campaign against the Persians began in 539 BC. e. Decisive battle between the Persians and the Babylonians happened near the city of Opis on the Tigris River. Cyrus won a complete victory here, soon his troops took the well-fortified city of Sippar, and the Persians captured Babylon without a fight.

After that, the eyes of the Persian ruler turned to the East, where for several years he waged an exhausting war with nomadic tribes and where he eventually died in 530 BC. e.

Cyrus' successors, Cambyses and Darius, completed the work he had begun. in 524-523 BC e. the campaign of Cambyses to Egypt took place, as a result of which the power of the Achaemenids was established on the banks of the Nile. became one of the satrapies of the new empire. Darius continued to strengthen the eastern and western borders of the empire. By the end of the reign of Darius, who died in 485 BC. e., the Persian state dominated on a huge territory from the Aegean Sea in the west to India in the east and from the deserts of Central Asia in the north to the rapids of the Nile in the south. The Achaemenids (Persians) united almost the entire civilized world known to them and owned it until the 4th century. BC e., when their state was broken and conquered by the military leader's genius of Alexander the Great.

Chronology of the rulers of the Achaemenid dynasty:

• Achaemen, 600s BC.
• Teispes, 600s BC
• Cyrus I, 640 - 580 BC.
• Cambyses I, 580 - 559 BC.
• Cyrus II the Great, 559 - 530 BC.
• Cambyses II, 530 - 522 BC
• Bardia, 522 BC
• Darius I, 522 - 486 BC
• Xerxes I, 485 - 465 BC
• Artaxerxes I, 465 - 424 BC
• Xerxes II, 424 BC
• Sekudian, 424 - 423 BC
• Darius II, 423 - 404 BC
• Artaxerxes II, 404 - 358 BC
• Artaxerxes III, 358 - 338 BC
• Artaxerxes IV Arses, 338 - 336 BC
• Darius III, 336 - 330 BC
• Artaxerxes V Bessus, 330 - 329 BC

Persian Empire Map

The Aryan tribes - the eastern branch of the Indo-Europeans - by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. inhabited almost the entire territory of present-day Iran. Itself the word "Iran" is the modern form of the name "Ariana", ie. aryan country... Initially, these were warlike tribes of semi-nomadic herders who fought in war chariots. Some of the Aryans migrated even earlier and captured it, giving rise to the Indo-Aryan culture. Other Aryan tribes, closer to the Iranians, remained to roam in Central Asia and the northern steppes - the Saki, the Sarmatians, etc. The Iranians themselves, settling on the fertile lands of the Iranian highlands, gradually abandoned their nomadic life, took up agriculture, adopting skills. It reached a high level already in the XI-VIII centuries. BC e. Iranian craft. Its monument is the famous "Luristan bronzes" - skillfully made weapons and household items with images of mythical and really existing animals.

"Luristan bronzes" - a cultural monument of Western Iran. It was here, in the immediate neighborhood and confrontation, that the most powerful Iranian kingdoms were formed. The first of them increased Medes (in the northwest of Iran). The Medes kings participated in the destruction of Assyria. The history of their state is well known from written records. But the Median monuments of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. very poorly studied. Even the capital of the country, the city of Ecbatana, has not yet been found. It is only known that it was located in the vicinity of the modern city of Hamadan. Nevertheless, two Median fortresses already investigated by archaeologists from the times of the struggle with Assyria speak of a rather high culture of the Medes.

In 553 BC. e. Cyrus (Kurush) II, the king of the subordinate Persian tribe from the Achaemenid clan, rebelled against the Medes. In 550 BC. e. Cyrus united the Iranians under his rule and led them to conquer the world... In 546 BC. e. he conquered Asia Minor, and in 538 BC. e. fell. The son of Cyrus, Cambyses, conquered, and under Tsar Darius I at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. before. n. e. Persian Power reached its greatest expansion and flourishing.

Monuments of her greatness are the royal capitals excavated by archaeologists - the most famous and best studied monuments of Persian culture. The oldest of these is Pasargadae, the capital of Cyrus.

Sassanian revival - Sassanian state

In 331-330. BC e. the famous conqueror Alexander the Great destroyed the Persian Empire. In revenge for Athens, once devastated by the Persians, the Greek Macedonian soldiers brutally plundered and burned Persepolis. The Achaemenid dynasty ended. The period of Greco-Macedonian rule over the East began, which is usually called the era of Hellenism.

For the Iranians, the conquest was a disaster. Power over all neighbors was replaced by humiliated submission to old enemies - the Greeks. The traditions of Iranian culture, already shaken by the desire of kings and nobles to imitate the vanquished in luxury, were now finally trampled upon. Little changed after the liberation of the country by the nomadic Iranian tribe of the Parthians. The Parthians expelled the Greeks from Iran in the 2nd century. BC e., but they themselves borrowed a lot from Greek culture. The Greek language is still used on the coins and inscriptions of their kings. Temples are still being erected with numerous statues, according to Greek models, which seemed to many Iranians blasphemy. Zarathushtra in ancient times forbade the worship of idols, commanding to honor the inextinguishable flame as a symbol of the deity and to offer sacrifices to it. It was the religious humiliation that was the greatest, and it was not for nothing that the cities erected by the Greek conquerors were later called "the structures of the Dragon" in Iran.

In 226 A.D. e. the rebel ruler of Pars, bearing the ancient royal name Ardashir (Artaxerxes), overthrew the Parthian dynasty. The story of the second began persian Empire - Sassanid powers, the dynasty to which the winner belonged.

The Sassanids sought to revive the culture of ancient Iran. The very history of the Achaemenid state by that time had become a vague legend. So the society that was described in the legends of the Zoroastrian priests-mobed was put forward as an ideal. The Sassanids built, in fact, a culture that had never existed in the past, thoroughly imbued with a religious idea. This had little to do with the era of the Achaemenids, who willingly adopted the customs of the conquered tribes.

Under the Sassanids, the Iranian decisively triumphed over the Hellenic. Greek temples completely disappear, the Greek language is no longer in official use. The broken statues of Zeus (who was identified with Ahura Mazda under the Parthians) are being replaced by faceless fire altars. Naqsh-i-Rustem is decorated with new reliefs and inscriptions. In the III century. the second Sassanian king Shapur I ordered to carve his victory over the Roman emperor Valerian on the rocks. On the reliefs of the kings, a bird-like farn overshadows - a sign of divine protection.

Capital of Persia became the city of Ctesiphon, built by the Parthians near the emptying Babylon. Under the Sassanids, new palace complexes were built in Ctesiphon and huge (up to 120 hectares) royal parks were laid out. The most famous of the Sassanian palaces is Tak-i-Kisra, the palace of King Khosrov I, who ruled in the 6th century. Along with the monumental reliefs, the palaces were now adorned with fine carved ornamentation over a lime mixture.

Under the Sassanids, the irrigation system of Iranian and Mesopotamian lands was improved. In the VI century. the country was covered by a network of caries (underground water pipelines with clay pipes), stretching up to 40 km. The caries were cleaned through special wells dug every 10 m. The caries served for a long time and ensured the rapid development of agriculture in Iran during the Sassanid era. It was then that cotton and sugarcane began to be grown in Iran, and horticulture and winemaking developed. At the same time, Iran became one of the suppliers of its own fabrics - both woolen and linen and silk.

Sassanian state was much less Achaemenid, covered only Iran itself, part of the lands of Central Asia, the territory of present-day Iraq, Armenia and Azerbaijan. She had to struggle for a long time, first with Rome, then with the Byzantine Empire. Despite all this, the Sassanids held out longer than the Achaemenids - more than four centuries... Ultimately, the state, exhausted by continuous wars in the west, was engulfed in a power struggle. This was taken advantage of by the Arabs, who carried by force of arms a new faith - Islam. In 633-651. after a fierce war, they conquered Persia. So it was over with the ancient Persian state and ancient Iranian culture.

Persian control system

The ancient Greeks, who became familiar with the organization of government in the Achaemenid empire, admired the wisdom and foresight of the Persian kings. In their opinion, this organization was the pinnacle of the development of the monarchical form of government.

The Persian kingdom was divided into large provinces, called satrapies after the title of their rulers - satraps (Persian, "kshatra-pavan" - "guardian of the region"). Usually there were 20 of them, but this number fluctuated, since sometimes the management of two or more satrapies was entrusted to one person and, conversely, one area was divided into several. This pursued mainly the purposes of taxation, but sometimes the peculiarities of the peoples inhabiting them, and historical characteristics were also taken into account. The satraps and rulers of the smaller regions were not the only representatives of local government. In addition to them, in many provinces there were hereditary local kings or sovereign priests, as well as free cities and, finally, "benefactors" who received cities and districts for life, or even hereditary possession. These kings, rulers and high priests in their position differed from the satraps only in that they were hereditary and had a historical and national connection with the population, who saw them as carriers of ancient traditions. They independently exercised internal government, preserved local law, a system of measures, language, imposed taxes and duties, but were under the constant control of satraps, who could often intervene in the affairs of the regions, especially during unrest and unrest. Satraps also resolved border disputes between cities and regions, litigation in cases when the participants were citizens of different urban communities or different vassal regions, regulated political relations. Local rulers, like the satraps, had the right to directly communicate with the central government, and some of them, such as the kings of the Phoenician cities, Cilicia, Greek tyrants, maintained their army and navy, which they personally commanded, accompanying the Persian army on large campaigns or performing military orders of the king. However, the satrap could at any time demand these troops for the tsarist service, put his garrison in the possessions of local rulers. The main command over the troops of the province also belonged to him. The satrap was even allowed to recruit soldiers and mercenaries on his own and at his own expense. He was, as it would have been called in an era closer to us, the governor-general of his satrapy, ensuring its internal and external security.

The supreme command of the troops was carried out by the commanders of four or, as during the subordination of Egypt, five military districts into which the kingdom was divided.

Persian control systemgives an example of the amazing respect by the winners of local customs and the rights of conquered peoples. In Babylonia, for example, all documents of the times of the Persian domination in legal terms do not differ from those relating to the period of independence. It was the same in Egypt and Judea. In Egypt, the Persians left the same not only the division into nomes, but also the sovereign surnames, the disposition of troops and garrisons, as well as the tax inviolability of temples and priesthood. Of course, the central government and the satrap could intervene at any time and decide matters at their own discretion, but for the most part it was enough for them if the country was calm, the taxes were proceeding regularly, the troops were in order.

Such a control system did not take shape in the Middle East overnight. For example, initially in the conquered territories, it relied only on force of arms and intimidation. The areas taken "with battle" were included directly in the House of Ashur - the central area. Those who surrendered at the mercy of the victor often retained their local dynasty. But over time, this system turned out to be poorly suited for managing the growing state. Reorganization of management, carried out by King Tiglatpalasar III in the CNT c. BC e., in addition to the policy of forced relocations, and changed the system of governance of the regions of the empire. The kings tried to prevent the emergence of overly powerful families. To prevent the creation of hereditary possessions and new dynasties among the rulers of the regions, to the most important posts often appointed eunuchs... In addition, although major officials received huge land holdings, they did not form a single array, but were scattered throughout the country.

But still, the main support of Assyrian rule, as well as Babylonian later, was the army. Military garrisons literally girdled the entire country. Taking into account the experience of their predecessors, the Achaemenids added to the power of arms the idea of \u200b\u200ba "kingdom of countries", that is, a reasonable combination of local characteristics with the interests of the central government.

The vast state needed the means of communication needed to control the central government over local officials and rulers. The language of the Persian chancellery, in which even royal decrees were issued, was Aramaic. This is due to the fact that in fact it was in common use in Assyria and Babylonia even in Assyrian times. The conquests by the Assyrian and Babylonian kings of the western regions, Syria and Palestine, further contributed to its spread. This language gradually took the place of the ancient Akkadian cuneiform in international relations; it was even used on the coins of the Asia Minor satraps of the Persian king.

Another feature of the Persian Empire that admired the Greeks there were wonderful roads, described by Herodotus and Xenophon in stories about the campaigns of King Cyrus. The most famous were the so-called Royal, which went from Ephesus in Asia Minor, off the coast of the Aegean Sea, to the east - to Susa, one of the capitals of the Persian state, through the Euphrates, Armenia and Assyria along the Tigris River; the road leading from Babylonia through the Zagros mountains to the east to the other capital of Persia - Ecbatana, and from here to the Bactrian and Indian border; the road from the Isa Gulf of the Mediterranean Sea to Sinop on the Black Sea, crossing Asia Minor, etc.

These roads were not only laid by the Persians. Most of them existed in Assyrian and even earlier times. The beginning of the construction of the Royal Road, which was the main artery of the Persian monarchy, probably dates back to the era of the Hittite kingdom, located in Asia Minor on the way from Mesopotamia and Syria to Europe. Sardis, the capital of Lydia conquered by the Medes, was connected by a road with another large city - Pteria. From him the road went to the Euphrates. Herodotus, speaking of the Lydians, calls them the first shopkeepers, which was natural for the owners of the road between Europe and Babylon. The Persians continued this path from Babylonia further east, to their capitals, improved it and adapted it not only for trade purposes, but also for state needs - mail.

The Persian kingdom also took advantage of another invention of the Lydians - the coin. Until the VII century. BC e. Throughout the East, a natural economy dominated, money circulation was just beginning to emerge: the role of money was played by metal ingots of a certain weight and shape. These could be rings, plates, mugs without embossing and images. The weight was different everywhere, and therefore, outside the place of origin, the ingot simply lost its value as a coin and had to be weighed again each time, that is, it was made an ordinary commodity. On the border between Europe and Asia, the Lydian kings were the first to go over to the minting of a state coin of a clearly defined weight and value. Hence the use of such coins spread throughout Asia Minor, to Cyprus and Palestine. The ancient trading countries -, and - kept the old system for a very long time. They began to mint coins after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and before that they used coins made in Asia Minor.

Establishing a unified tax system, the Persian kings could not do without minting coins; in addition, the needs of the state that held mercenaries, as well as the unprecedented flourishing of international trade, caused the need for a single coin. And a gold coin was introduced into the kingdom, and only the government had the right to mint it; local rulers, cities and satraps for payment to mercenaries received the right to mint only silver and copper coins, which outside their area remained an ordinary commodity.

So, by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. in the Middle East, through the efforts of many generations and many peoples, a civilization arose, which even the freedom-loving Greeks was considered ideal... Here is what the ancient Greek historian Xenophon wrote: “Wherever the king lives, wherever he goes, he makes sure that everywhere there are gardens called paradis, full of everything beautiful and good that the earth can produce. He spends most of his time in them, if the season does not interfere with this ... Some say that when the king gives gifts, first those who distinguished themselves in the war are summoned, for it is useless to plow a lot if there is no one to protect, and then - those who cultivate the land in the best way. for the strong could not exist if it were not for the workers ... ".

It is not surprising that this civilization developed precisely in Western Asia. She not only arose earlier than others, but also developed faster and more energetically, had the most favorable conditions for its development thanks to constant contacts with neighbors and the exchange of innovations. Here, more often than in other ancient centers of world culture, new ideas arose and important discoveries were made in almost all areas of production and culture. Potter's wheel and wheel, making bronze and iron, war chariot as fundamentally new means of warfare, various forms of writing from pictograms to the alphabet - all this and much more genetically goes back precisely to Western Asia, from where these innovations spread throughout the rest of the world, including other centers of primary civilization.