What are the names of the mountains of the Apennine Peninsula. Apennines (mountains). Political division of the peninsula

The Apennine peninsula, in addition to the peninsula itself, includes the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and smaller ones: Liparskie, Elba, etc. It includes Italy and the French department of Corsica. The peninsula is located in the center and has the most pronounced features inherent in the subcontinent.

The configuration of the Apennine Peninsula is of great importance for the formation of natural features: it is narrow (up to 300 km at its widest point) and stretches 750 km from north to south.

The Apennine Peninsula is characterized by a mountainous relief, and the mountains are low and stretched from north to south.

The axial part is occupied by the ridges of the Apennines - low mountains of alpine folding (the highest point of the Korno - 2914 m). In the north, they are widespread loose rocks of the Paleogene age, mainly clayey. This is associated with the widespread development of landslide relief. To the south, the mountains are composed of limestones, dissected by tectonic faults into steep-sloping massifs. This part of the Apennines is characterized by karst formation, and the highest massifs bear traces of ancient glaciation. Karst forms, formed by sea activity, are common on the steep slopes of the mountains close to the coast in the very south. Continuation of the Apennine structures - about. Sicily. The coastal plains along the Tyrrhenian Sea in the north are the remnants of the ancient Tyrrhenian, which sank beneath the seas as a result of Neogene faults. Along the faults, volcanic activity has not stopped even now: numerous are known (Vesuvius, Etna, Stromboli, etc.). Some parts of the coastal plains were formed on lava sheets, in many places there are outlets of hot waters. The mountains of Calabria are formed on the fragments of the Tyrrenida in the same way as the mountainous terrain of Sardinia and Corsica.

The Mediterranean climate is typical for the entire peninsula.

Climatic conditions change from north to south: winter temperatures rise (average January - from 6-7 ° C to 10-12 ° C), summer becomes drier (for three summer months in Naples, on average, about 70 mm of precipitation falls, and in Syracuse - only 20 mm). There are climatic differences between the western and eastern parts of the region. In general, the climate in the west is warmer and more humid than in the east. In the Apennines, altitudinal zoning is manifested: at the latitude of Rome, summer temperatures exceed 20 ° C to an altitude of 700-800 m, and in the mountains snow lies from to. On the plains in winter there are short snowfalls and light frosts associated with the invasions of the cold cyclones in the rear. In general, the region is protected from the entry of cold air masses by the Alps. The warmest region of the Apennine Peninsula is the coast of the Ligurian Sea (the so-called Riviera), covered from the north by the Ligurian Apennines. This is one of the most famous resort areas in the world.

The Apennine peninsulas are short, have an uneven runoff: in summer they dry up, sometimes completely, and during winter rains they overflow with water. There are also floods, including catastrophic ones.

The vegetation is poorly preserved. Primary forests are replaced by shrub formations. This also applies to hard-leaved forests in the plains, and broad-leaved or pine mountain forests. There are artificial tree plantations, planting of subtropical crops is widespread.

The region stands out for its agro-climatic, land and diverse recreational resources, which attracts a large number of people in need of rest and treatment, and tourists. The wealth of the subsoil is small. It should be noted that there are valuable building and cladding materials, including the famous white Carrara marble. The resources of the seas surrounding the peninsula are being intensively used.

The region has long been densely populated. Its nature has been greatly changed by various economic activities and needs environmental protection measures. Protected areas have been established in a few areas with preserved natural complexes. In the Circeo National Park, organized in 1934, where the hilly coastal plains, dunes, lakes, and a diverse fauna were taken under protection, in the 70s. XX century. were allocated areas of complete reserves with the prohibition of any activity, except for scientific. The park is part of the international system of biosphere reserves. There are several other such territories in the region, as well as a number of wildlife sanctuaries.

The Apennine Peninsula is the largest peninsula in Europe, located in the South of the continent. It is washed by the Mediterranean Sea on three sides, and in the North it intersects with the Alpine ridge. Italy is mainly located on the peninsula, as well as some autonomous territories dependent on it. The Apennine Peninsula is a typical example of the Mediterranean landscape and climate. Read about these and other features below.

Geographical position

So, first, consider where the Apennine Peninsula is located. The well-known "boot" is located in the very south of Europe, in the Mediterranean Sea. In the west, it is washed by the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the east - by the Adriatic, and in the southeast by the Ionian. The northern part is separated from the mainland by the Padan Plain, immediately followed by the ridge of the Alps. They are the “filter” of most cyclones that pass over the continent. The total area of \u200b\u200bthe peninsula is 149 thousand square kilometers, the maximum length from north to south reaches 1100 km, and from west to east - up to 300 km.

Terrain relief

To a greater extent, the Apennine Peninsula is a mountainous area. The mountain range of the same name is located here, which covers the entire part of the land and literally goes into the sea with its rocks and cliffs. In the North, the peninsula of the Apennines are connected to the Alps. There is no clear border between the two mountain ranges, therefore, from a geological point of view, these two massifs are one whole. It is worth noting that seismic changes are now taking place in Italy, as a result of which small volcanoes erupt - Stromboli, Etna. The mountain ranges are covered with dense forests, mostly evergreen. In the south, where the climate becomes especially mild and hot, there are the most rare types of palms and ferns. Due to the fact that the peninsula is covered with mountains, the coastline is indented here. On the shores of the seas, there are countless quiet bays, which are an excellent place for a secluded getaway.

Weather

Now let's consider what weather conditions the Apennine Peninsula is famous for. The climate here changes from Mediterranean to continental, depending on the latitudinal zonality. In coastal areas, weather conditions are mild and mild. Summer is always warm - up to +30 degrees, while there is no rain. In winter, the humidity level rises, and the temperature drops to +8. In the interior of the continent, seasonal differences are much greater. Summers here are very dry and hot - over +30, and winters are cold, frosts and snow often occur. The warmest region of the peninsula is the Riviera - the northern resort area, which is located near the border with France. It is protected from the continent by high mountains, so cold air does not penetrate here.

Inland waters

Far from being the longest and deepest are the inland waters, which cover the Apennine Peninsula with their net. The rivers here are mostly short, narrow, completely unsuitable for navigation. The longest and deepest of them is Po, which stretches for as much as 652 km. It occupies more than a quarter of the length of Italy and flows into the Adriatic Sea basin, as a result of which it forms a delta. Po has many tributaries that feed it. These are Dora Baltea, Ticino, Adda and many others. Some of them dry up in summer, but in late winter and spring they literally overflow with water, flooding all coastal areas. Another important waterway of the peninsula is the Tiber River, on which the historic city of Rome is located. Its length is 405 kilometers, and, like the Po, it has many tributaries, which dry up completely in summer.

Vegetation of the region

The Apennine Peninsula is predominantly in a tropical climate, however, due to the vast mountain range, the local flora is very diverse, and its features depend on the specific region. Territories located in the interior of the continent are more reminiscent of continental latitudes in their landscape. Evergreen oaks, ferns, and many other shrubs and trees grow here. Moreover, in especially cool regions, they often shed their foliage for the winter. On the seashore, nature is changing dramatically. The climate becomes Mediterranean and the plants turn tropical. These are all kinds of palms, low-growing tropical shrubs, huge citrus plantations. It is worth noting that the southernmost regions of Italy are literally planted with orange trees. Many of them are combined into private fields and grown not in the wild, but at home, taking into account all the rules. It is also important to know that most of the reserves on the Apennine Peninsula are created artificially. Seismic destructive processes here often destroyed the entire flora, therefore people themselves sowed vast territories with trees and bushes of various types.

Animals, birds and insects

Considering the fact where the Apennine Peninsula is located, what climatic zone falls on it and what features the local relief has, it is easy to imagine what kind of fauna will be here. There are very few mammals here due to the fact that the natural woodland has been repeatedly exterminated. Among this species, only the ibex, chamois, mouflons and rams remained. Small mammals here are also not in great variety - they are just a ferret, hare, hedgehogs and several species of wild cats. The bird fauna is represented here by a much wider range. In mountain ranges, the goshawk, vulture, golden eagle, falcon, eagles and other predatory inhabitants of heavenly heights are often found. Closer to the reservoirs, ducks, swans, geese, herons live, along the seashore, of course, there are gulls and albatrosses of a wide variety of species. The flora of birds in the Alps is considered unique. There are hazel grouses, swifts, ptarmigan, wood grouse and many others. Insects, despite the fact that the peninsula is located in the tropics, are few here. There are only spiders, centipedes and other arthropods familiar to us.

Political division of the peninsula

Now let's consider what administrative division the Apennine peninsula has. The countries that are located here are exclusively those territories that belong to Italy, which occupies the bulk of these lands. The state stretches from the southern border of the Alps and ends on the island of Sicily. Within its borders there is a country with a special status - the Vatican. It is also the smallest on the planet. Also in the western part of the peninsula is San Marino. This is another tiny country that has more of a sacred meaning for the Catholic world than a political one. In fact, it is the Republic of Italy.

Conclusion

The Apennine Peninsula is a unique place on earth. Despite the fact that it lies in the tropical zone, the weather here is incredibly varied. Most of this mini-continent is covered with mountain ranges. Among the peaks there are active volcanoes that correct the seismic activity of the region. And in those areas that are close to the shores of the seas, the climate is much milder and more stable than in the zone of latitudinal zoning. There is richer flora and fauna, less sudden temperature changes and higher humidity. That is why the coastal areas of Italy are considered one of the best places for a beach holiday.

Author Irina Bulycheva asked a question in the section Other about cities and countries

Write the name of the mountains of the Apennine Peninsula and the mountains that protected the peninsula from the north and got the best answer

Answer from Ivan Nezhentsev [active]
the Apennines stretch along the peninsula, in the north the Italian Alps

Answer from Ramzes[guru]
alpiyskie gori

Answer from Vladimir[guru]
Andes.

Answer from Oleg Orlov[newbie]
and now where are they, retired chtol?

Answer from Igor Dementyev[active]
alps

Answer from Katya Gorokhova[newbie]
The Apennine Peninsula is one of the largest peninsulas in Europe, located in the south of the continent and washed by the Mediterranean Sea. The main part of Italy is located on the peninsula, as well as the Republic of San Marino and the theocratic state of the Vatican. The area of \u200b\u200bthe peninsula is 149 thousand km². The length is about 1100 km, the width is from 130 to 300 km. In the north, the Apennine Peninsula is bounded by the Padan Plain, in the west it is washed by the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the east by the Adriatic Sea, in the south by the Ionian Sea.
The peninsula got its name from the Apennine Mountains, stretching along most of it.
A feature of the Apennine Peninsula is its high seismicity, modern mountain building and volcanic activity. So the volcano Stromboli is active continuously throughout the entire historical time and was called the "lighthouse of the Tyrrhenian Sea", and the volcanoes Etna, Vesuvius and others also repeatedly erupted, which led to massive loss of life. Strong earthquakes are not uncommon for the Apennine Peninsula. It is obvious that the threat of a tsunami is constantly hanging over the coastal villages of the Apennines. These processes are due to the global tectonic process of the movement of continental plates, when the African continent collides and moves under the plate on which Europe is located as part of Eurasia. Africa is not only moving north, but also turning clockwise. Volcanologists expect in the near future a catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius on the shores of the Gulf of Naples with inevitable loss of life.

Answer from Daniil Lantsov[newbie]
Alps

Answer from Natalia Zhukova[newbie]
Alps

Answer from Larisa[active]
the Apennines stretch along the peninsula, in the north the Italian Alps

Answer from Daniil Oleinik[active]
AND
L
B
P
S

Answer from Andrey Shishlin[newbie]
what exactly is the Alps or the Andes or the Apennines.

Answer from roman Ponomarev[newbie]
ALPS

Answer from Dasha sribna[newbie]
Apennines

Answer from Yopartanets VF[newbie]
alps

Answer from 3 answers[guru]

Almost 4/5 of the surface of the Apennine Peninsula is occupied by mountains and hills, and less than 1/4 of its area falls on the Padan Plain and narrow coastal lowlands.

The basis of the relief is the Apennine mountain system, which crosses the Apennine Peninsula along its entire length and passes to the island of Sicily. The Apennines are one of the youngest mountains on earth. In their length (1500 km) they exceed the Alps, but are much inferior to them in height. Their highest point, Mount Corno, reaches only 2914 meters above sea level. The peaks of the Apennines do not reach the snow border and are devoid of eternal snows, only on the eastern slopes of Monte Corno, the only glacier in the Apennines descends to an altitude of 2690 m.In the north, the Apennines stretch along the coast of the Gulf of Genoa, limiting the Padan plain from the south. The narrow strip between the mountains and the sea is called the Riviera: French - in the west, Italian - in the east. Within the peninsula, the Apennines deviate to the southeast and recede quite far from the Tyrrhenian Sea.

The entire region is characterized by a predominance of mountainous relief. Boundary Lands are almost everywhere formed by fault lines along which recent subsidence has taken place, shaping the current outline of the coast. The coastline is comparatively little dissected.

One of the most characteristic features of the Apennine Peninsula is the widespread development of volcanic and seismic processes, as well as modern land movements, due to the fact that the region is located in a zone of young alpine folding.

A characteristic feature of the geological structure of the peninsula is the wide distribution of volcanic rocks, which are especially common in Tuscany, Lazio, Campania.

The only vast lowland is the Padan Plain, which occupies most of the Po basin. The rest, insignificant in area, lowlands stretch along the coast. The Padan plain gradually declines from west to east.

Italy, which occupies the entire Apennine Peninsula, is one of the few European countries where earthquakes are frequent. Often they are catastrophic there. In the twentieth century. over 150 earthquakes have been registered in the country. The zone of the greatest seismic activity is in Central and Southern Italy. The last strong earthquake occurred in November 1980. It covered a vast territory - 26 thousand square meters. km (from the city of Naples to the city of Potenza).

The Apennine Peninsula has volcanoes of different types and at different stages of development. There are also extinct volcanoes (Euganean Hills, Albanian Mountains) and active (Vesuvius, Stromboli).

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Geographical position of the Apennine Peninsula

Almost 4/5 of the surface of the Apennine Peninsula is occupied by mountains and hills, and less than 1/4 of its area falls on the Padan Plain and narrow coastal lowlands.

The basis of the relief is the Apennine mountain system, which crosses the Apennine Peninsula along its entire length and passes to the island of Sicily. The Apennines are one of the youngest mountains on earth. In their length (1500 km) they exceed the Alps, but are much inferior to them in height. Their highest point, Mount Corno, reaches only 2914 meters above sea level. The peaks of the Apennines do not reach the snow border and are devoid of eternal snow, only on the eastern slopes of Monte Corno, the only glacier in the Apennines descends to an altitude of 2690 m. In the north, the Apennines stretch along the coast of the Gulf of Genoa, bordering the Padan plain from the south. The narrow strip between the mountains and the sea is called the Riviera: French - in the west, Italian - in the east. Within the peninsula, the Apennines deviate to the southeast and recede quite far from the Tyrrhenian Sea.

The entire region is characterized by a predominance of mountainous relief. Boundary Lands are almost everywhere formed by fault lines along which recent subsidence has taken place, shaping the current outline of the coast. The coastline is comparatively little dissected.

One of the most characteristic features of the Apennine Peninsula is the widespread development of volcanic and seismic processes, as well as modern land movements, due to the fact that the region is located in a zone of young alpine folding.

A characteristic feature of the geological structure of the peninsula is the wide distribution of volcanic rocks, which are especially common in Tuscany, Lazio, Campania.

The only vast lowland is the Padan Plain, which occupies most of the Po basin. The rest, insignificant in area, lowlands stretch along the coast. The Padan plain gradually declines from west to east.

Italy, which occupies the entire Apennine Peninsula, is one of the few European countries where earthquakes are frequent. Often they are catastrophic there. In the twentieth century. over 150 earthquakes have been registered in the country. The zone of the greatest seismic activity is in Central and Southern Italy. The last strong earthquake occurred in November 1980. It covered a vast territory - 26 thousand square meters. km (from the city of Naples to the city of Potenza).

The Apennine Peninsula has volcanoes of different types and at different stages of development. There are also extinct volcanoes (Euganean hills, Albanian mountains) and active (Vesuvius, Stromboli).

Factors of soil formation

For the first time, the doctrine of the factors of soil formation was formulated by V.V.Dokuchaev. He was the first to consider external natural components as dynamic systems, under the combined impact of which soils are formed, and this impact was assessed over time.

Dokuchaev identified 5 factors of soil formation:

1. soil-forming rocks;

2. relief;

3. living organisms;

4. climate;

In addition, Dokuchaev argued that all factors are equal and irreplaceable, that is, in the absence of at least one of them, the soil as such is not formed. But at the same time, a directed effect of one or several factors is possible. The combined impact of these factors leads to the formation of a certain soil with specific properties.

The decisive factor in the formation of soils is the parent rock (parent rock), since it determines the initial constituents of soils: physical, mineral, chemical, etc. Soil-forming rocks affect many factors and processes of soil formation, in particular, the rate of the process of soil formation, the level of soil fertility, on the nature of irrigated agriculture and drainage measures, on the structure of the soil cover.

The relief plays an indirect role in soil-forming processes. It affects the redistribution of the components of the geographic environment.

The basis of the relief is the Apennine mountain system, which crosses the Apennine Peninsula along its entire length and passes to the island of Sicily. In the north, the Apennines merge with the Maritime Alps. There is no clearly defined border between these two mountain systems, and tectonically, the Northern Apennines are a direct continuation of the Alps. In the west and east, between the mountains and the sea coast, strips of flat or hilly relief are distinguished, which are not related to the Apennines in structure.

The mountains in Tuscany, the central Apennines, Campania and Brasilicata are composed of conglomerates, sandstones and limestones, as well as shales and marbles. Further south in Calabria, they are composed of ancient, volcanic origin, and metamorphic rocks.

In the north, the Apennines stretch along the coast of the Gulf of Genoa, bordering the Padan plain from the south. The narrow strip between the mountains and the sea is called the Riviera: French - in the west, Italian - in the east. Within the peninsula, the Apennines deviate to the southeast and recede quite far from the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Up to the upper reaches of the Arno, the mountains are called the Northern Apennines. In this part, they are composed of Paleogene, mostly loose rocks and rarely exceed 2000 m. The predominance of clay deposits in the structure of the Northern Apennines creates conditions for the development of landslide phenomena, which are intensified due to the destruction of forests. Many settlements in the Northern Apennines are located in deep tectonic basins. The ancient city of Florence is located in one of these hollows.

To the south, the Central Apennines are composed of Mesozoic limestones and break up into high massifs, separated by deep basins and tectonic valleys. In the Northern and Central Apennines, all forms of surface and closed karst are found: craters, wells, karr fields, cave grottoes.

The slopes of the massifs are mostly steep and bare. The highest parts of the mountains have experienced glaciation, and glacial forms are clearly expressed in their relief. The highest peak of the Apennines, Mount Corno Grande in the Gran Sasso d'Italia massif, reaches 2,914 m and is a typical carling with a sharply defined peak and steep slopes. Extermination of forests contributed to a very strong development of karst processes in the Central Apennines.

In the very south, the Apennines are very close to the Tyrrhenian coast and in some places drop off directly to the sea. The activity of the sea surf has developed peculiar forms of relief in the limestones. Orographically, the Apennines continue on the Calabrian peninsula called the Calabrian Apennines. But the mountains of Calabria are of a different age and structure than the rest of the Apennines. It is a dome-shaped massif, composed of crystalline rocks, leveled and uplifted by faults. Obviously, it is part of an older structural complex that existed on the site of the Tyrrhenian Sea, and experienced faults and subsidence in the Neogene.

The coastal strips of the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Seas on the Apennine Peninsula have a different structure and relief. The strip along the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea reaches its greatest width in the north, where separate crystalline massifs rise among a low hilly plain - part of the same ancient land as the mountains of Calabria. Further to the south, ancient and young volcanic formations begin to play a large role in the structure and relief of the Predapennines. There, a number of extinct volcanoes rise and there are plains made of volcanic rocks and dissected by rivers. On a hilly volcanic plain stands the capital of Italy, Rome. There are many hot springs in the area. Further south, in the Naples region, the double cone of Vesuvius rises - one of the most active volcanoes in Europe. Vast areas around Vesuvius are covered with lava, poured out during numerous eruptions, and covered with masses of volcanic ash.

On the side of the Adriatic Sea, at the foot of the Apennines, there is an elevated hilly strip called the Subapennines. In the southern part, the Subapennines turn into a karst limestone plateau up to 1000 m high, which stretches from the Gargano Peninsula to the Salentina Peninsula.

Between the Apennines and the Tyrrhenian coast from La Spezia to Salerno stretch the Anti-Apennines - a special area that includes hilly hills, undulating plateaus and individual mountain ranges. Many elevated landforms, such as the Lepini Mountains in Lazio and the Apuan Alps in northern Tuscany, are composed of limestone and marble. The Apuan Alps (which, despite their name, are not related to the Alps) are known for deposits of quality marble. Volcanic rocks predominate in two parts of the Anti-Apennines. One of them stretches from Mount Amiata (1738 m) in southern Tuscany to the Albani Mountains (25 km southeast of Rome). There are many lakes here, including Bolsena, Bracciano and Albano, which fill the craters of extinct volcanoes. Another volcanic zone is located around Naples in the vicinity of Vesuvius and is famous for its extremely high soil fertility.

On the southeastern edge of the Apennines is the Puglia region, which consists of four sub-districts. This is the Gargano limestone massif jutting into the Adriatic Sea; the low mountains of Le Murge, another limestone massif separated from Gargano by the Apulian lowland, or Tavoliere (this is the third subdistrict), and the low and fairly flat Salentina Peninsula. The Apulian lowland, formerly used only for grazing sheep, is now characterized by intensive agricultural development, despite summer droughts and winter floods. Although both limestone massifs and the Salentina Peninsula are almost completely devoid of surface water, they are nonetheless highly productive agricultural areas specializing in the cultivation of grapes, olives and almonds.

The eastern slopes of the Apennines are adjoined by a strip of clay and sandy hills stretching from Emilia-Romagna through the Marche. Despite its susceptibility to erosion, it is intensively cultivated.

Most of the land in the Apennines is set aside for pastures and forests, but many steep slopes are used for wheat crops, vineyards and orchards, especially in densely populated valleys and hollows.

The climate also has a significant impact on the formation of soils, affecting soils both directly and indirectly through the biota (through vegetation), since the nature of the vegetation depends on the climate. The process of soil formation is influenced by the average temperatures of January and July, the annual amount of precipitation, evaporation, and the nature of moisture.

Biota has a great impact on the formation of the soil cover. Plants and animals do a tremendous biochemical work, they form a special system of soil - plants. In the course of interaction in the soil-plant system, a continuous biological cycle of matter occurs. The beginning of the soil formation process is always associated with the activity of microorganisms. And the leading role in the process of soil formation belongs to higher plants.

The Apennine Peninsula is located within the forest zone of the temperate zone (Padan plain in the north) and in the subtropical zone (the Calabria peninsula in the south). The sea has a great influence on the formation of the features of the nature of the peninsula, especially its climate. Even the deepest regions are located no more than 200-220 km. from the sea coast. The nature of the Apennine Peninsula and the diversity of its landscapes are also influenced by the significant elongation of the territory from the northwest to the southeast and the predominance of hilly mountainous relief.

Only the climate of peninsular Italy can be called Mediterranean proper. The climate of the Padan Plain (Western Oceanic broad-leaved permanently moist forests) with the same hot summer as on the Apennine Peninsula, but with cold and foggy winters, can be considered transitional from subtropical to temperate. Here, the influence of the warm Ligurian Sea is hindered by the Maritime Alps and the Apennines, while colder air from the Adriatic freely penetrates here. The average January temperature on the Padan Plain is about 0 °, and in July - + 23-24 °. In autumn, cyclones are actively formed here. In winter, it always snows, often frosts up to 10 °. Half of 600 - 1000 mm of annual precipitation falls on spring and summer. Strong, even catastrophic, downpours are not uncommon in Northern Italy. Summer rains are often accompanied by thunderstorms and hail.

The climate of the Alps changes with altitude from moderately warm to cold. In the mountains, snow lasts for several months, and on the tops of the mountains it never melts.

The slopes of the Carnic Alps receive the most precipitation - 3000 mm. In the rest of the Alpine regions, an average of 1000 mm falls annually.

The Mediterranean climate is distinctly expressed in the south of the Apennine Peninsula and on the islands. Summer here is dry and hot (average July temperature is + 26 °), winters are mild and warm (average January temperature is + 8-10 °). In the northern and central parts of the Apennine Peninsula, average temperatures are different - + 24 ° in July and + 1.4-4 ° in January. Snow on the Apennine Peninsula is very rare. From March to October, sirocco blows in southern Italy - a dry and hot wind from Africa, bringing temperatures up to + 30-35 ° and reddish dust.

The Mediterranean precipitation regime (maximum - in winter, minimum - in summer) is typical for the entire peninsula.

In the upper part of the Apennine mountains the climate is cold, and in the closed intermontane valleys it is sharply continental.

The Alps towering north of the region are an almost insurmountable obstacle to cold air intrusion. Only on rare occasions, at intervals of several decades, when an unusually harsh winter sets in in Western Europe, do cold air masses pass over the Alps or flow around them, spreading far to the south. At the same time, frost and snow occur throughout the Apennine Peninsula and even on the island of Sicily.

The climate of the coast of the Ligurian Sea - Riviera - is especially mild. This narrow coastal strip pressed to the sea from the north is protected by mountains from the invasion of cold air masses. Winter is usually warmer here than in the more southern regions of the Apennine Peninsula (average January temperature is 8 ° C); precipitation is abundant - up to 3000 mm, their maximum falls in autumn. The summer is sunny and without rain, the intense heat is tempered by the proximity of the sea. Frosts on the Riviera are very rare, there is almost never snow.

In the northern part of the Apennine Peninsula, the climate is not as mild as on the Riviera. The average January temperature in Florence and Rome is 5 ... 6 ° С, and there are frosts and snowfalls every year. The amount of precipitation in the west exceeds 1000 mm, in the east it is usually no more than 500 mm, their maximum occurs in autumn and spring, when the polar front passes through these regions. Average July temperature is 24 ... 25 ° С. The climate of Calabria is much warmer.

The vegetation of the Apennine Peninsula is diverse. However, dense population, centuries-old human activity have led to the fact that in the country everywhere, with the exception of the high mountains, cultural landscapes prevail. Once forests covered almost the entire Padan Plain and the Apennine Peninsula, but they were predatory exterminated for fuel and construction and now occupy only 20% of the territory, mainly in the mountains and hills, while the plains are practically treeless.

The rather monotonous landscape of the densely populated and almost entirely cultivated Padan plain is sometimes revived by oak, less often - birch or pine groves. In the floodplain of the river. Poplars, willows, white acacia grow along the way. The alleys of these trees line the roads, the banks of the canals and rivers.

Evergreen trees and shrubs stretch in a wide strip along the coastal lowlands of the Apennine Peninsula and islands, penetrating far (up to 500-600 m) into the mountains along river valleys. Evergreen stone and cork oaks, pine and alpine pines, mastic trees, palms, cacti, and agaves stand out from the wild species. The maquis, formed by a strawberry tree, treelike juniper, laurel, wild olive, oleander, etc., is very characteristic. However, cultural species prevail here, primarily subtropical - citrus fruits, olives, almonds, pomegranates, figs, cork oak groves planted by man. Altitudinal zonation is clearly manifested in the mountains.

Since the Alps and the Apennines are located in different natural zones, the belt of subtropical vegetation is characteristic only of the foothills of the Apennines. Approximately at an altitude of 500-800 m above sea level. sea \u200b\u200bin the Apennines, subtropical vegetation is replaced by deciduous forests, or rather their small islets left after centuries of felling. These are mainly oak forests, with an admixture of chestnut, hornbeam, ash, and beech. Of the cultivated plants in this zone, mainly Central European fruit trees, vineyards are widespread; there are crops of rye, oats, potatoes, and forage crops. Above, the belt of mixed coniferous-beech forests begins. Their lower border in the north, in the Alps, descends to 900 m, and in the south, in the Apennines, rises to 2000 m.

At an altitude of about 2000 m, the highest forest belt begins in the Southern Apennines - coniferous forests, consisting of various types of pine, European types of spruce, larch, fir. In the Apennines, relatively large tracts of mountain coniferous forests are found in Calabria and Tuscany.

Above the coniferous forests, subalpine tall-grass meadows begin, rhododendrons, creeping forms of juniper, pine, etc. appear. Further, they are replaced by alpine meadows. Mountain meadows are used as summer pastures. Above mountain meadows to the very peaks or glaciers, the slopes are covered with mosses and lichens. In some places, even at the edge of snowfields, primroses and saxifrage bloom in summer. In the Apennines more often than in the Alps, bare slopes come across - the result of deforestation, erosion and landslides.

Another important factor in soil formation is time, since evolutionary development is characteristic of the soil, as well as for other parts of the geographic envelope.

Here we can add that the Apennine Peninsula is located in the zone of young Alpine folding.

Soil cover of the Apennine Peninsula

The soil cover of the Apennine Peninsula is diverse. In the north, in the Alps, mountain meadow and mountain forest soils are widespread. The southern foothills of the Alps and most of the Padan plain are covered with brown forest soils. In the mid-hundredth zone of the Alps, they are podzolized and infertile. In the coastal regions of the Adriatic Sea, there are swampy soils.

On the low plateaus of the Apennine foothills, humus-carbonate and mountain-forest brown soils prevail. In the lowlands, hills and low mountains of the coasts of the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas, red Mediterranean soils ("terra-rosa") have formed on limestone, especially suitable for the cultivation of fruit trees and grapes. There are soils formed on volcanic rocks. Alluvial soils are widespread in river valleys.

The soil conditions in Italy are quite favorable for agriculture, although not everywhere in equal measure. The most fertile soils are on the plains and in the low hilly regions.

Characteristics of the soils of the Apennine Peninsula

On the plains of the Apennine Peninsula, the soils change from north to south, forming several latitudinal zones: the Padan plain lies in the zone of Central European brown soils, extending to the slopes of the Alps; to the south, on the plains of the peninsula, brown soils and red soils of the subtropics are widespread, combined with intrazonal soils on volcanic and limestone rocks and along river valleys. In the mountains, the soil cover forms high-altitude zones.

Brown forest soils cover the southern foothills of the Alps and large areas of the Padan Plain, mainly high dry plains. These soils are formed on clastic rocks of different composition, carried from the mountains by rivers and glaciers. The parent rocks become thinner and thinner as they travel from the base of the mountains to the Po River and to the sea. In addition, towards the east, alluvium becomes more and more calcareous, so brown soils acquire some of the properties of rendzin. They are associated with alluvial soils.

In different parts of the Padan Plain, several varieties of the general type of burozems are observed, and in this regard, the vegetation changes. At the foot of the Alps, on moraines rich in skeletal materials, rather fertile, but thin soils have formed. On high plains with their permeable soils, surface waters go inland. At some depth there is a layer of "ferretto" - impenetrable cemented rubble, on the surface of which water flows down, leaving the entire soil layer dry. This circumstance, as well as the associated poverty of the vegetation cover, makes the soils sterile, poor in humus and soluble salts. The soils have an acidic reaction and nodules at depth. Such soils were named in Italy: in Piedmont vaude, in Lombardy brughiere, in Friule magredi. Most of them remain barren wastelands and are used as pastures, aided by deforestation. To the south of the Po River, on high, but less permeable plains, there are yellow soils that do not have nodules and contain a small amount of sesquioxides in the lower horizons.

Towards the Po river, coarse permeable sediments are replaced by thinner sandy-argillaceous or argillaceous-limestone fluvio-glacial and ancient alluvial materials, and the river valleys are filled with modern alluvium. Thin, impermeable sediments form a strip of damp low plain. In its western part, light loams and sandy loams prevail, on which brown forest gley weakly podzolized soils and bog-podzolic soils are formed. They are usually poor in lime and acidic. In the eastern part of the plain, where alluvial deposits along the Po and other rivers are widely developed, the soils become deep, heavy, fine-grained, and contain a lot of colloidal clays. In the depths, an accumulation of calcium carbonate is sometimes observed. The abundance of groundwater often leads to waterlogging. Along the Po River on the floodplain terrace, there are young alluvial soils saturated with salts and having peat masses with remnants of marsh vegetation. The alluvial soils of the Padan Plain are very fertile. There is still no large scale soil map of the Padan Plain.

On the Apennine Peninsula, the zonal type of soils is primarily brown soils of subtropical forests and shrubs, widespread on the plains, hills and foothills, and sometimes high in the mountains - up to 2500 m.Owing to the rugged relief, they are developed fragmentarily, interrupted by mountain, alluvial and intrazonal soils ... Brown soils as a special zonal genetic type were identified by S. A. Zakharov and I. P. Gerasimov, who indicated that these soils develop under light dry-loving low-growing forests and shrubs in a subtropical warm and variable-humid climate. As a zonal type, brown soils are also developed in other climatically similar regions of Southern Europe, North Africa, Western Asia, and America. B. B. Polynov considers them to be Mediterranean analogues of chernozems. Brown soils were formed on a wide variety of rocks: crystalline, metamorphic, sedimentary, detrital.

E. S. Michurina showed by the example of Crimean brown soils that their parent rocks - diluvium and eluvium - are enriched with carbonates under the influence of karst waters, creating an alkaline or neutral environment. Calcium and alkaline oxides are carried out to the underlying layers. The soil-forming processes in such an environment are similar in type to chernozem soil formation, the soils are saturated with calcium and contain up to 5% humus. At the same time, brown soils contain iron oxides, which give the humus horizon a brown color that distinguishes them from chernozems.

Several types of brown soils are identified on the soil map of Italy: red-brown, brown calcareous, brown alkaline and Mediterranean brown. Red-brown soils are formed on gravels of the Middle or Lower Pleistocene. The sequence of horizons А-Вса-Сса-С. Horizons B and C are highly enriched in calcium carbonate in the form of loose or nuclear nodules.

Brown calcareous soils are found only on limestones in the dry areas of Puglia. The sequence of soil horizons ACca C, horizon A of small thickness (less than 25 cm), below it is the horizon of calcium carbonate accumulation.

Brown alkaline soils - soils with an ABC profile. Horizons A and B have aggregates and accumulations of clay. In the upper horizon B, they are saturated with bases up to 35%.

Mediterranean brown soils - soils with the profile A-B-C. Horizon A is sometimes dry, horizon B is brown or yellowish in color with a clear accumulation of clay. Saturation with bases above 35%.

Another zonal soil type characteristic of Middle-earth is red soil. They are common in lowlands, hills and low mountains, from Liguria and coastal Tuscany to Sicily and Sardinia, without penetrating deep into the interior regions of the peninsula and islands. Formed under Mediterranean vegetation associations - thickets of oaks and maquis, sometimes under sub-Mediterranean communities with the participation of deciduous oaks.

On the soil map of Italy, among the types of red earths, "associations" differ depending on the nature of the parent rocks and local climatic conditions. Red calcareous soils are found on more or less compact tertiary limestones and have a sequence of horizons A-C. Horizon A1 is usually less than 40 cm thick and contains carbonates often to the surface. Such soils have been recorded only in the Sassari region, in Sardinia.

Another association, terra rossa, is formed on calcareous rocks and has an A-B-C profile. Horizon A is rather dark in color, horizon B is clayey (over 30%) and has a red color due to the content of insoluble iron compounds.

Horizons A and B are free of carbonates. The individual horizons of these soils are poorly differentiated, the reaction of the soil is alkaline, and the structure is silty. The problem of the origin of "Terra Rossa" has long caused lively discussions. Some soil scientists considered such soils to be fossil formations, but this is not entirely correct, since a significant part of the soils are formed under the conditions of the Mediterranean climate at the present time. The largest massifs of "terra rossa" are in Apulia and Gargano, large areas are covered by them in the Central and Southern Apennines.

On less uneven areas with favorable relief, the red Mediterranean soils have deeper profiles, the better preserved horizon A, containing a lot of humus in places. Lithogenic soils and outcrops appear here and there among the massifs of red earth, which impairs the possibilities of agricultural use.

Dark colored soils are found in the semi-arid regions of Puglia. In the Physico-Geographical Atlas of the World, they are classified as a resinous plant. These soils should be considered as a climatically zonal formation, since the parent rocks and topographic conditions of their formation can be very different.

Due to the long summer dryness, they have little humus here and are infertile. The soils of hilly areas are predominantly clayey, their profile is undeveloped, the permeability is poor, the soils can be structural or unstructured. The content of organic material ranges from 1.5 to 2.8%, lime - from 5 to 15%, nitrogen - from 0.1-0.2%, phosphorus - about 1-1.2%. Improvement of soils should be carried out by deep plowing and fertilization, as well as irrigation.

In addition to zonal soils, intrazonal soils are also widespread on the peninsula. These include soils on volcanic rocks. Around active volcanoes on their lavas and coarse and fine pyroclastic materials, soil-forming processes are at the most primitive stages. On lavas, soil-forming processes occur very slowly, on pyroclastic materials, much faster. Repetitive alternations of humus horizons and volcanic ash are often observed. With strong slopes, soil erosion develops, while on the plains fertile volcanic soils are widely used for agricultural crops.

On the dune coasts, podzols develop as azonal soils, which are called coastal podzols on the soil map of Italy in order to distinguish them from the high-zonal alpine podzolic soils that arise on coarser moraines and clastic sediments. On the dunes of the Tyrrhenian coast, which are of considerable age and are fixed by vegetation, humus podzols and rather deep ferruginous humuses are observed. The soils have a red or yellow-brown illuvial clay horizon B. These soils are poor, acidic, and may be insufficiently drained in depth. With very strong hydromorphism, the soils transform into psecdogley soils occurring on terraces and Pleistocene dunes. The Holocene dunes are also characterized by hydromorphic soils, clayey or clayey-silty, with difficult drainage. They rarely show a surface horizon, often enriched in organic material and acquiring a brown color.

The use of soils of the Apennine Peninsula and their ecological state

The Apennine Peninsula has a variety of minerals, but their deposits are mostly small, scattered over the territory, often inconvenient for development. There are small deposits of iron ore. It has been mined for 2,700 years, and now it has survived only in Aosta.

There are very large reserves of mercury ore - cinnabar, which occurs in Tuscany. In the karst depressions of Apulia, bauxite deposits are being developed, however, at present they are almost exhausted. There are manganese deposits in Liguria and Central Italy.

In Tuscany, Umbria, Calabria there are deposits of brown and low-quality coal. Limited oil reserves in the Padan Plain and on the east coast of Central Italy. There are natural gas deposits of the Padan Plain and its underwater continuation - the continental shelf of the Adriatic Sea, as well as natural gas found in the Northern, Central and Southern Apennines.

The bowels of the Apennine Peninsula are rich in building materials - marble, granite, travertine, etc. In Carrara (Tuscany), the famous white Carrara marble is mined, which was used by the ancient Romans to create many sculptures and decoration of buildings.

Most of the land in the Apennines is set aside for pastures and forests, but quite a few steep slopes are used for wheat crops, vineyards and orchards, especially in densely populated valleys and hollows ..

In the hilly western part of the Padan Plain, there are orchards and vineyards, and in the lower reaches of the river. Po - livestock, grain and sugar beet regions.

In the coastal zone of the Apennine Peninsula, brown soils of the subtropics are widespread, very favorable for the cultivation of grapes and other southern crops.

The scourge of the cultivated land of the Apennine Peninsula is erosion. It is stimulated by the dominance of elevated or mountainous terrain, the predominance of clay or marly soils, and the stormy nature of precipitation. Deforestation and plowing of slopes intensify erosion processes. The plowing of the slopes of the Apennines in Italy was accompanied by such severe erosion that a badland appeared on an area of \u200b\u200b230 thousand hectares in the central and southern regions of the country. At the same time, soil-protective afforestation is constrained by a severe shortage of productive lands and therefore is clearly not used enough.

The European Mediterranean is one of the oldest centers of agriculture on the planet, where the population spontaneously developed anti-erosion practices. Here, for example, special lands, called Mediterranean ones, are widespread - these are crops planted with tree crops. If on steam the washout reaches more than 100 t / ha, i.e. becomes catastrophic, then in conditions of mixed polyculture it decreases to 8-10 t / ha.

In the agricultural landscapes of the warm zone, which are very dry in summer, the share of irrigated lands is increasing. But their location does not always correspond to the most arid conditions, and is often determined by the presence of water reserves and socio-economic reasons. Puglia in Italy finds itself in the most critical situation.

On the Iberian Peninsula, 3 million hectares are irrigated, although 6 million hectares need irrigation. On the Venetian-Padan plain of Italy, there is one of the largest continuous irrigation areas in Europe on the waters of the Alpine and Apennine tributaries of the Po River and the underground springs of the Fontanilli. On the basis of gravity canals, an area of \u200b\u200bintensive commercial rice growing arose. Significant areas of irrigated land are concentrated in Puglia (olive plantations and vineyards), in Tuscany.