Formation and development of the world colonial system. Great geographical discoveries and the emergence of the colonial system The beginning of the formation of the colonial system briefly

The countries of the East over the course of three centuries of modern times (XVI-XIX centuries) have experienced a rather painful transition from a dominant position in world history to the status of a subordinate side, at least inferior and defensive. At the beginning of this period, in the XVI-XVII centuries, they were mainly busy with their internal problems and did not pay enough attention to the West. Japan, China, India and their closest neighbors were too far from Europe and therefore were not very worried about the first expeditions of Vasco da Gama in 1498-1502. to the west of India and the creation of Affons d "Albuquerque in 1509-1515. A chain of strongholds from Socotra Island south of Yemen to the Mallacca Peninsula. Even the Muslims, who had better and better known the Iberian conquistadors by that time, were confident in their military and other superiority over the "infidels", especially the Ottomans, who then went from victory to victory.

In Japan, where the consolidation of feudalism was expressed in the final triumph in the 16th century. the shogunate, the rigid centralization of power with the suppression of the freedom of the peasants and townspeople was accompanied at first by a tendency towards external expansion, especially against the K era at the end of the 16th century. The Portuguese (in 1542) and Spanish (in 1584) merchants who appeared here, and did not arouse much interest, became the object of closer attention when they took up in the late 16th century. missionary activity and even more so the slave trade. The first shogun from the Tokugawa dynasty confined himself to opposing the Portuguese and Spaniards with the Dutch and English who arrived in 1600, concluding more favorable agreements with them. An attempt by the Spaniards in 1611 to expel the Dutch and the British with the help of the Spanish navy ended in failure. In 1614, Christianity was banned in Japan (although many feudal lords on Kyushu, who imported weapons from Europe, had already adopted it). In 1634 all the Spaniards were expelled from the country, in 1638 all the Portuguese. An exception was made only for the Dutch, who helped the shogun suppress the peasant uprising in 1637-1638, but even then on condition that their trade was limited to the territory of a small island near Nagasaki, under the supervision of the shogun's officials and with the prohibition of all religious propaganda. Even earlier, in 1636, all Japanese were forbidden, under threat of death, to leave their homeland and build large ships suitable for long voyages. The era of the "closed state" has come. isolation of the country from the outside world, which lasted until 1854. During this time, only the Dutch and Chinese merchants appeared in Japan.

Nevertheless, in Japan they secretly followed the course of international events and, collecting information about foreign countries, were aware of world affairs. The establishment of Russia in Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands led to attempts by the Russians to "open" Japan. All of them were unsuccessful, starting with Bering's expedition in 1739 and ending with Golovnin's expedition in 1809-1813. The shoguns tried to preserve the feudal order as much as possible. In doing so, they considered the best remedy for the country's self-isolation. Even the wrecked Japanese sailors, abandoned by the storm to other countries, were forever deprived of the right to return to their homeland. Basically, this continued until the overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate and the "Meiji restoration" in 1868.

Japan's neighbor - the largest state in the world, China - experienced in the XVI-XVII centuries. a painful turn in its history. The Ming dynasty, which ruled from 1368, actually entrusted the administration to the temporary workers, under whom corruption, embezzlement and favoritism flourished. Almost two centuries of opposition struggle (XV-XVI centuries) ended in failure. The Manchus took advantage of the economic decline and the feudal reaction that suppressed the living thought in the country. Their tribes, occupying northeastern China, were tributaries of the Ming dynasty, were at a lower level of development than the Chinese, but their bile princes, having accumulated significant wealth, slaves and great combat experience (they fought each other endlessly), extremely intensified. The most gifted of the bile Nurhatsi gradually rallied all the Manchus, created a powerful unified army instead of large formations, extremely combat-ready thanks to harsh discipline, an indisputable hierarchy of military ranks, blood ties of tribal unity and excellent weapons. Having proclaimed independence in 1616, Nurhatsi started a war with China in 1618.

The war, during which the Manchus also conquered Korea, Mongolia and Taiwan, lasted until 1683. These 65 years also include the great peasant war of 1628-1645, which overthrew the Ming dynasty, the betrayal of the Ming aristocracy, which actually linked up with the Manchus and recognized their power for the sake of suppressing together with them the indignation of the lower classes of their own people. The Qing dynasty, which began to rule in 1644, represented the elite of the Manchus (descendants of Nurhatsi) and for the first 40 years continued to suppress the resistance of the Chinese with the most bloody methods, turning entire cities into cemeteries (for example, Yangzhou, where, according to eyewitnesses, up to 800 thousand people were massacred) ).

The Dutch, the British, and the French tried to take advantage of the devastation of China, deploying by the end of the 17th century. lively trade in the coastal cities of southern China, where everything was purchased at extremely low prices and sold in Europe at high prices. However, the Qing emperors soon followed Japan's example and began to restrict the activities of foreigners. In 1724 the preaching of Christianity was banned, and the missionaries were expelled from the country. In 1757, all ports in China were closed to foreign trade, except for Canton and Macau, which was captured by the Portuguese. Fearing the strengthening of the cities, which became centers of anti-Manchu resistance, the Qing rulers slowed down the development of trade and crafts, hindered foreign trade and even the construction of merchant ships. Monopoly companies under the strict control of the Qing bureaucracy traded under special permits (merchants from Shanxi - with Russia and Central Asia, Cantonese - with the British East India Company). The merchants were associated with the moneylenders and the top of the bureaucracy. At the same time, the Qing, in many respects inheriting the old models of the Chinese monarchy, further aggravated its cruelty, making the most of the principles of Confucianism (submission of the son to the father, subjects to the ruler, etc.) to regulate the life of the Chinese, their submission and humiliation.

The complex social hierarchy of society was brought to its peak by the Manchus. In 1727 an imperial decree established the institution of slavery in accordance with Manchu customs. Even Bogdykhan's harem was strictly hierarchical, numbering 3 main concubines, 9 concubines of the second category, 27 - the third, 81 - the fourth. The criminal legislation numbered 2,759 corpus delicti, of which more than 1,000 were punishable by death. The despotic system of power associated with constant humiliation (torture, beating with sticks, shaving the head and wearing a scythe by men as a sign of submission to the Manchus) contributed to the constant discontent and latent indignation of the people, which periodically broke out during the uprisings. But, in general, indignation accumulated gradually, especially in secret societies, which often included entire communities in their members, covering entire villages, corporations of merchants and artisans. Arising back in the era of Mongol rule in the 13th century, these societies multiplied after the capture of the country by the Manchus. All these societies - "White Lotus", "Triad" (ie the society of heaven, earth and man), "Fist for Peace and Justice" and others - were especially strong in the coastal cities, where they were headed by merchants. Members of societies, bound by harsh discipline, morality of self-denial, and fanatical belief in their cause, played a huge role not only in anti-Manchu protests, but also in rallying compatriots abroad, strengthening their ties with their homeland and relatives in a foreign land. The emigration of the Chinese, primarily to neighboring countries, played a significant role in the spread of the ideology of Confucianism, the cult of ancestors and other features of the spiritual culture of the Chinese, and in a certain piety of the surrounding peoples towards China. Moreover, many of the countries where they left (Burma, Vietnam, Siam, Korea, Mongolia, Tibet, Kashgaria, now called Xinjiang), either periodically joined China, or fell under its protectorate, or were forced to enter with it in various kinds of unequal relationships.

China's relations with Russia were peculiar. In 1689, the first Russian-Chinese treaty on border and trade was signed in Nerchinsk. According to the Kyakhta Treaty of 1728, i.e. 4 years after the expulsion of Western missionaries from China,

Russia, having strengthened relations with him through territorial concessions, won the right to keep a spiritual Orthodox mission in Beijing, which in fact performed the functions of both diplomatic and trade missions. At the end of the 18th century. A new conflict arose between Russia and China due to the Bogdykhan's attempts to subordinate the Kalmyks to his influence, who migrated to the Volga lands from the Dzungar Khanate, with which the Manchus fought since the 17th century. The attempt was thwarted by the Russians, after which the Chinese even stopped letting Kalmyks into Tibet to worship the shrines of Lhasa. After the destruction by the armies of the Bogdykhan of the Dzungar Khanate in three campaigns in 1755-1757, the Chinese (Upper Manchus) divided it into Inner (southern) and Outer (northern) Mongolia, and interrupted the direct economic ties of the Mongols with Russia earlier. These ties were restored only more than 100 years later, after the conclusion of the Russian-Chinese treaties of 1860 and 1881.But by that time, the Chinese merchants who had established themselves in Mongolia, relying on the help of the Manchu authorities and solid financial and commercial support from the British, Japanese and American firms were able to eventually consolidate their dominance in Mongolia.

The forced "opening" of China by the West occurred after the defeat of China in the first "Opium" War of 1840-1842. The British took the island of Hong Kong from him, forced it to open for foreign trade, in addition to Canton, 4 more ports and obtained from the Bogdikhan the right to extraterritoriality, freedom of trade and many other concessions. In 1844, the United States and France won the same concessions from China in their favor. All this undermined mutually beneficial Russian-Chinese trade due to the sharp increase in competition from the Western powers. Wishing to oppose Russia to its rivals, the Chinese concluded an agreement with her in 1851, which provided Russian merchants with significant privileges.

Shaking the whole of China with the Taiping uprising in 1851-1864. England, France and the United States took advantage of them to further strengthen their positions and to de facto subjugate the Manchu rulers after the wars of 1856-1858. and 1860, finally convinced of the complete helplessness of their medieval army in front of the Western imperialist troops equipped with the latest technology. In addition, then the threat of the collapse of the state arose with particular urgency. This was most clearly manifested in western China, where the Dungans and other Muslims had created a number of small states by 1864. In 1867, the entire Kashgaria (Xinjiang) was united under his rule by the Tajik Yakub-bek, a dignitary of the Kokand Khan. Particularly dangerous was the fact that Yakub-bek, focusing on England, entered into a trade agreement with her in 1874 and, at the behest of the British, received the title of Emir, weapons and military instructors from the Ottoman Sultan. In the state of Yakub-bek (Dzhety-shaar, that is, "Semigradie"), Sharia law prevailed and the "Khoja", descendants of the Turkestan dervishes, who led a number of anti-Manchu uprisings from 1758 to 1847, enjoyed great influence. However, after the death of Yakub -beck in 1877, a struggle for power began at the top of the Jeta-Shaar. Taking advantage of it, the Qing government was able to liquidate the Jety-Shaar in 1878.

Nevertheless, China became in fact a semi-colony of Western powers due to the treacherous behavior of the Manchu officials and the Qing dynasty, who sought salvation from their own people in the subservience of the imperialists. The last official resistance to the West was the war between China and France in 1884-1885. Having suffered defeat in it, China was forced to abandon formal sovereignty over Vietnam, which became the object of France's colonial desires. The next failure of the Qing was the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. Japan, which after 1868 found a way out of its internal difficulties in external expansion, from 1874 tried to carry out conquests in China and Korea, formally subject to it. By starting the war, the Japanese achieved everything they wanted: they seized Taiwan and the Penghuledao Islands, imposed an indemnity on China, made Korea formally independent from China (i.e., defenseless against Japanese expansion). This defeat was the reason for new pressure from the West on China: the Qing government was forced to take a number of onerous loans, to provide England, France, Germany, the United States, as well as Russia and Japan, which had joined the "concern of powers", of concessions for the construction of railways and "lease »A number of territories. The dominance of powers, the arbitrariness of foreigners and missionaries, as well as the consequences of the defeats suffered by China were the main reason for the uprising of 1899-1901, jointly suppressed by the troops of the powers that ruled in China, as well as the Austro-Hungary and Italy that joined them. The semi-colonial status of China was thus finally consolidated.

Iran was also turned into a semi-colony. In the XVI century. it was the powerful state of the Safavids, which included, in addition to Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, part of Afghanistan and Central Asia. For the possession of the entire Caucasus, Kurdistan and Iraq, there was a fierce struggle between the Safavids and the Ottoman Empire. However, already in the XVI century. the power of the Safavids was undermined both as a result of economic decline and the constant uprisings of the enslaved peoples. The movement of the insurgent Afghans, which had been growing since 1709, led to their capture of the capital of the state, Isfahan. The Khorasan Turkmen Nadir, from the Afshar tribe, who headed the struggle against the Afghans and the Ottomans who invaded in 1723 from 1726, managed not only to expel the conquerors, but also to revive Iran as a great Asian empire, including all of Afghanistan, part of India, Central Asia and Transcaucasia. However, after the death of Nadir Shah in 1747, his empire collapsed. Non-Iranian regions, in the main, went on an independent path of development, and in 1763, the British and the Dutch began to penetrate into Iran, engulfed in feudal strife, who received the rights of extraterritoriality, duty-free trade and the creation of their own armed trading posts, and in fact, military fortresses in a number of points of the Persian bay.

The Qajar dynasty, which came to power in 1794, ruled with the most brutal methods, often disfiguring and blinding the population of entire cities, driving the inhabitants of non-Iranian regions into slavery, as well as arranging massacres and pogroms in them, as was the case in 1795-1797. in Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia. Later, Iran, mainly on the territory of these countries, waged two wars with Russia (in 1804-1813 and 1826-1828), which ended unsuccessfully for it. At the same time, there was an intensive penetration of the British into Iran, who, bribing literally everyone, "from the Shah to the camel driver", concluded a new treaty with Iran in 1801, which further expanded and strengthened their positions in Iran and made it possible to use this country as a weapon of pressure and on Russia, and on France, and on Afghanistan (which prevented England from "mastering" India). And according to the treaty of 1814, England directly intervened in Iran's relations with its neighbors, providing it with 150 thousand pounds in case of war with Russia or France and obliging him to fight the Afghans in the event of their attack on "British" India.

Later, however, in the struggle between Russia and England for influence on Iran, Russia began to gain the upper hand. Nevertheless, the British managed to maintain their positions and even impose a new unequal treaty on Iran in 1841. The uprising of the Babids (adherents of the religious movement Seyid Ali Muhammad Baba) in 1844-1852. shocked Iran and even engendered a desire for reforms among a part of the feudal-bourgeois elite, which were quickly strangled by the Shah's court, the conservative aristocracy and the clergy. These circles later tried to maneuver between England and Russia, but were forced, basically, to retreat, providing both powers with different concessions, decisive positions in the banking system and customs revenues, in the army and various departments. The north of Iran became the sphere of influence of Russia, the south - of England.

The fate of other countries of the East, which became objects of direct colonial expansion and direct subordination to the West, developed differently.

How was the expansion of Europe to the East carried out and what were its stages. The expansion of Europe to the East began with the Portuguese conquests in Africa. Already in 1415, the Portuguese captured Ceuta on the northern coast of Morocco, turning it into the first of their African fronteiras (frontier fortresses). Then they occupied the port of El-Ksar Es-Segir (in 1458) and Anfu (in 1468), which they completely destroyed, building in its place their fortress of Casa Branca, later called Casablanca in Spanish. In 1471 they took Arsila and Tangier, in 1505 - Agadir, in 1507 - Safi, in 1514 - Mazagan. Almost the entire coast of Morocco was in the hands of the Portuguese, with the exception of Rabat and Sale. However, already in 1541 the domination of the Portuguese weakened after they surrendered Agadir, and soon also Safi, Azzemmur, Mogador. They held out for the longest time in Maza Gana (now El Jadida) - until 1769.But basically, their influence in Morocco was ended in 1578, when almost the entire Portuguese army at the head of El Ksar El Kebir died. with King Sebastian. However, many fortresses ensured their dominance in Africa, Brazil and Southeast Asia. The ports of Diu, Daman and Goa in India, Macau in China remained the possessions of Portugal until the second half of the 20th century. In the XVI century. they also had many strongholds in Siam and the Moluccas. They founded a number of such fortresses in Ceylon, including Colombo, the future capital of the island.

The Spaniards, who followed the Portuguese, were more successful in America than in Asia and Africa, where they were either overtaken by the Portuguese or had to face fierce resistance. The only significant possession of Spain in Asia was the Philippines, discovered in 1521 by Magellan, but conquered in a bitter struggle only in 1565-1572. In the Mediterranean basin, the Spaniards first achieved some success, capturing Melilla in the north of Morocco in 1497, and in 1509-1511. a number of cities in Algeria - Oran, Mostaganem, Tenes, Cherchel, Bedzhayu, as well as the island of Peñon in front of the country's capital. The king of Spain has even been proclaimed king of Algeria. But all these positions, as well as influence among the "peaceful", ie. allied with Spain, the tribes were lost by 1529, when Algeria finally became part of the Ottoman Empire. The exception was Oran, which remained in the hands of the Spaniards until 1792.

The Spaniards were even more active in Tunisia. In 1510 they captured Tripoli, then belonging to Tunisia, and in 1535 - and Tunisia itself, which they owned until 1574, i.e. almost 40 years. However, from here they had to retreat. At that time, the Spaniards, especially in alliance with the knights of Malta, Genoa and Venice, could still resist the Ottomans at sea, but much less often on land. The Battle of Lepanto in 1571, in which the combined forces of Spain and its allies defeated the Ottoman fleet, and at the same time, the failures of the Spanish army led by King Charles V near Algeria in 1541, as well as near Tripoli in 1551 are very characteristic ... All of Europe was shocked by the defeat of the Hungarian-Czech army in 1526, the death of King Lajos II, who headed it, the occupation of the lands of Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia by the Ottomans, their campaigns in 1529 and 1532 against Vienna. Subsequently, the Ottoman threat hung over Vienna until 1683, when the Ottomans laid siege to the Austrian capital for the last time, and their vanguard, the Crimean cavalry, even reached the borders of Bavaria. But the decisive defeat inflicted by him by the army of the Polish king Jan Sobieski led then not only to a turning point in the course of the war, but also to the development of confrontation between the Muslim East and the Christian West as a whole.

Spain of the Habsburgs overstrained, taking on the overwhelming role of the world hegemon and striving to fight at the same time and fromwith the Ottomans, and with the Gueuze in the Netherlands, and with the French in Europe, and with the Indians in America, and with the rebels in the Philippines, as well as with the British and Protestants all over the world. The country's population for the most brilliant, but also the most difficult in the Spanish history of the XVI century. decreased by 1 million (i.e. by 1/9) and continued to lose annually 40 thousand emigrants who left for America. By the end of the century, 150 thousand Spaniards (3% of the active population of that period) were vagrants, beggars, war invalids, criminals and other marginalized people. Moriscos (baptized Moors) regularly left the country, playing a significant role in the economy, but at the same time being the object of hatred for the clergy and the envy of the rabble. Their complete exile in 1609-1614. (with the secret goal of enriching themselves at their expense) finally undermined the material capabilities of the kingdom, for which the burden of great power was becoming too heavy. War of the "Spanish Succession" 1701-1714 practically deprived Spain of the status of a great power, although it retained its colonies.

Even before Spain receded into the background as a colonial metropolis, the Dutch, who had just won independence themselves (in fact, in 1581, formally in 1609), and the British came to the fore almost simultaneously. The East India (from 1602) and West Indies (from 1621) companies of the Dutch launched an intensive colonial expansion around the world. Taking advantage of the weakening of Portugal, which was annexed to Spain in 1580 (until 1640), the Dutch began to oust the Portuguese from everywhere, by 1609 having expelled them (together with the Spaniards) from the Moluccas, and by 1641 having conquered Malacca. In 1642 they conquered Taiwan, and in 1658 took Ceylon from the Portuguese. The conquest of Java, begun by the Dutch back in 1596, continued until the 18th century. In the XVII century. Madura, Mauritius, and a number of colonies in Africa and America were also captured. Having defeated the English fleet in 1619 in several battles in the Gulf of Thailand and the Sunda Strait, the Dutch temporarily got rid of the British as competitors in Southeast Asia. However, already from the second half of the 17th century. Holland loses its maritime and trade hegemony due to the success of England in the Anglo-Dutch wars of 1652-1654. and 1672-1674, as well as large losses of Holland in the wars with France in 1672-1678, 1668-1697, 1702-1713. France by that time had become a powerful trade and colonial rival of Holland, which was forced to blockade with England in the face of the threat of French expansion. Therefore, Holland, by that time and economically (especially in industrial development) yielding to England, began to surrender her one position after another. And after the establishment of French rule in Holland in 1795-1813, the Dutch colonies in Africa, America and Ceylon were captured by the British. After the restoration of sovereignty, Holland was forced to "voluntarily" agree to the loss of these colonies, and according to the London Treaty of 1824 to give up in favor of England its possessions in India and Malaya. But she retained her main colony in Asia - Indonesia.

The rivalry of the powers often led to the fact that colonies, passing from hand to hand, often acquired a complex ethnocultural appearance. This especially applies to the islands, among which, for example, Ceylon from 1517 was the object of the claims of the Portuguese, from 1658 - a colony of Holland, from 1796 - England. Roughly the same thing happened with Mauritius, from the beginning of the 16th century. owned by the Portuguese, from 1598 to the Dutch, from 1715 to the French, from 1810 to the British.

England, which began its colonial policy in the struggle against Spain and Portugal, in an alliance, and then also in the struggle with Holland, later fiercely competed with France. As a result of this constant centuries-old struggle with the continental powers, the British learned a lot and achieved a lot, using, among other things, the contradictions between their competitors in colonial plunder. The British began their expansion to the East as allies of the Dutch in the struggle against the Portuguese and Spaniards. They acted independently in America, where in 1583 they captured the island of Newfoundland, and in 1607 the first British colony of Virginia was founded. But in 1615, the growth of English trading posts (Surat, Masulinatam, Pulikat, Madras) began in India, where the British managed to obtain a number of trade privileges in the Mughal empire. For a long time they limited themselves to economic penetration into the colonies of their weakened competitors - Portugal and Holland. Some of them, primarily in America, were captured in the 18th century. the main rival of England was France, which was fought simultaneously in the North of America, in the Caribbean and in India. Almost everywhere the victory went to England, after a 20-year war, which practically liquidated the position of France in India by 1761. the British captured Bengal, crushed Mysore in 1799, and defeated the Marathas in 1818. With the capture of Punjab in 1846, the conquest of India was completed. Even earlier, in 1786, the British began expansion into Malaya, in 1824 - the first war with Burma. At the same time, Holland recognized the "legitimacy" of the capture of Singapore by England in 1819.

Despite the serious crisis of British colonialism in the last quarter of the 18th century, when England lost 13 colonies in North America, which later formed the United States, in the 19th century. the colonial empire of Great Britain continued to grow due to the colonization of Australia and New Zealand, new conquests in Africa, as well as in Asia, where Aden was captured in the south of Yemen in 1839, in 1842 - Hong Kong (Hong Kong) in the south of China, which became one of the bases of British expansion in Asia. In 1878, England received Cyprus from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1882 established control over Egypt, as a result of which it actually became the master of the Mediterranean, relying on its bases in Gibraltar (from 1704), in Malta (from 1800), Cyprus and the Suez Canal Zone. In 1885, the conquest of Burma was completed, in 1898, under the guise of "lease", the port of Weihaiwei was taken from China.

Features of the formation of the colonial system

In a slave society, the word "colony" meant "settlement". Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome had colonies-settlements on foreign territory. Colonies in the modern sense of the word appeared in the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries in the late 15th - early 16th centuries. As a result of the great geographical discoveries, begins to form colonial system.This stage in the development of colonialism is associated with the formation of capitalist relations. Since that time, the concepts of "capitalism" and "colonialism" have been inseparably linked. Capitalism is becoming the dominant socio-economic system, the colonies are the most important factor accelerating this process. Colonial plunder and colonial trade were important sources of initial capital accumulation.

A colony is a territory devoid of political and economic independence and dependent on the metropolises.

Initial period

The period of the initial accumulation of capital and manufacturing production predetermined the content and forms of relations between colonies and metropolises. For Spain and Portugal, colonies were primarily sources of gold and silver. Their natural practice was frank robberyup to the extermination of the indigenous population of the colonies. However, the gold and silver exported from the colonies did not accelerate the establishment of capitalist production in these countries. Most of the wealth plundered by the Spanish and Portuguese contributed to the development of capitalism in Holland and England. The Dutch and British bourgeoisie profited from the supply of goods to Spain, Portugal and their colonies. Colonies in Asia, Africa and America captured by Portugal and Spain became the object of colonial conquests in Holland and England

The period of industrial capitalism

The next stage in the development of the colonial system is associated with the industrial revolution, which begins in the last third of the 18th century. and ends in developed European countries around the middle of the 19th century. The period is coming exchange of goods,which draws the colonial countries into world commodity circulation. This leads to double consequences: on the one hand, the colonial countries are turning into agrarian and raw materials appendages of the metropolises, on the other hand, the metropolises contribute to the socio-economic development of the colonies (the development of local industries for the processing of raw materials, transport, communications, telegraph, printing, etc. ).

By the beginning of the First World War, at the stage of monopoly capitalism, the colonial possessions of three European powers were formed:

At this stage, the territorial division of the world is completed. The leading colonial powers of the world are stepping up the export of capital to the colonies.

Colonialism in the 16th-17th centuries

Colonization of the African continent.

In the colonial policy of the European powers of the XVI-XVII centuries. a special place is occupied by the African continent. Slavery existed in Africa for a number of centuries, but it was mostly patriarchal in nature and was not so tragic and destructive before the arrival of Europeans. Slave tradethe Portuguese began in the middle of the 15th century, then the British, Dutch, French, Danes, and Swedes joined it. (The centers of the slave trade were located mainly on the West coast of Africa - from Cape Verde to Angola inclusive. Especially many slaves were taken from the Gold and Slave coasts).

Colonialism of the period of industrial capitalism. The role of colonies in the economic development of the metropolises

In the new historical conditions, the role of the colonies in the economic development of the metropolises is growing significantly. The possession of colonies promoted industrial development, military superiority over other powers, the maneuvering of resources in the event of wars, economic crises, etc. In this regard, all colonial powers seek to expand their possessions. The increased technical equipment of the armies makes it possible to realize this. It was at this time that the "discoveries" of Japan and China took place, the establishment of the colonial rule of the British in India, Burma, Africa was completed, Algeria, Tunisia, Vietnam and other countries were seized by France, the expansion of Germany in Africa began, the USA began in Latin America, China, Korea, Japan - in China, Korea, etc.

At the same time, the struggle of the metropolises for the possession of colonies, sources of raw materials, and strategic positions in the East is intensifying.

Geographical discoveries of the 15th-16th centuries changed the course of world history, initiating the expansion of the leading Western European countries in various regions of the world and the emergence of colonial empires.

The first colonial powers were Spain and Portugal. A year after the discovery of the West Indies by Christopher Columbus, the Spanish crown demanded confirmation by the Pope (1493) of its exclusive right to discoveries and the New World. Having concluded the Tordesillas (1494) and Saragossa (1529) treaties, the Spaniards and the Portuguese divided the New World into spheres of influence. However, the agreement of 1494 on the division of spheres of influence along the 49th meridian seemed too close to both sides (the Portuguese, in spite of it, were able to take possession of Brazil), and after Magellan's trip around the world it lost its meaning. All the newly discovered lands in America, with the exception of Brazil, were recognized as the possessions of Spain, which, in addition, captured the Philippine Islands. Brazil and lands along the coast of Africa, India and Southeast Asia went to Portugal.

Colonial activity of France, England and Holland until the beginning of the 17th century. was reduced mainly to preliminary reconnaissance of the territories of the New World, not conquered by the Spaniards and Portuguese.

Only the crushing of the Spanish and Portuguese domination of the seas at the end of the 16th century. created the preconditions for the rapid expansion of the new colonial powers. The struggle for the colonies began, in which the state-bureaucratic system of Spain and Portugal was opposed by the private enterprise initiative of the Dutch and the British.

The colonies became an inexhaustible source of enrichment for the states of Western Europe, but their merciless exploitation turned into disasters for the indigenous people. The natives were often exterminated or driven out of the land, used as cheap labor or slaves, and their introduction to Christian civilization was accompanied by the barbaric extermination of the original local culture.

With all this, Western European colonialism has become a powerful lever for the development of the world economy. The colonies ensured the accumulation of capital in the metropolises, creating new markets for them. As a result of the unprecedented expansion of trade, a world market has developed; the center of economic life moved from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic. Port cities of the Old World such as Lisbon in Portugal, Seville in Spain, Antwerp and the Netherlands have become powerful centers of trade. Antwerp became the richest city in Europe, where large-scale international trade and credit transactions were carried out thanks to the regime of complete freedom of transactions established there.

Topic: "The formation of the colonial system, the influence of colonialism on the development of Europe"

Specialty 18.02.09. Oil and gas processing.

Performed):

Student group gr.

Checked by the teacher
stories:

Volgograd
2016

1.1 Formation of the colonial system in the world ………………………… .3-7

1.2. Types of colonies ……………………………………………………. …… 8-10

1.3. Peculiarities of colony management ………………………………… .11-16

1.4. The collapse of the colonial system and its consequences …………… ... …… .17-25

List of used literature …………………………………………… ... 26

application

The formation of the colonial system in the world.

The countries of Europe, having carried out modernization, received huge advantages over the rest of the world, which was based on the principles of traditionalism. This advantage also affected the military potential. Therefore, following the era of great geographical discoveries, associated mainly with reconnaissance expeditions, already in the XVII-XVIII centuries. colonial expansion to the East of the most developed countries of Europe began. Traditional civilizations, due to the backwardness of their development, were not able to resist this expansion and turned into easy prey for their more powerful opponents. The preconditions for colonialism originated in the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, namely in the 15th century, when Vasco da Gama opened the way to India, and Columbus reached the shores of America. When faced with peoples of other cultures, Europeans demonstrated their technological superiority (ocean sailing ships and firearms). The first colonies were founded in the New World by the Spaniards. The robbery of the American Indian states contributed to the development of the European banking system, the growth of financial investments in science and stimulated the development of industry, which, in turn, required new raw materials.

The colonial policy of the period of initial capital accumulation is characterized by: the desire to establish a monopoly in trade with the conquered territories, the seizure and plunder of entire countries, the use or imposition of predatory feudal and slave-owning forms of exploitation of the local population. This policy played a huge role in the process of initial accumulation. It led to the concentration of large capitals in the countries of Europe on the basis of the plunder of colonies and the slave trade, which developed especially since the second half of the 17th century and served as one of the levers of turning England into the most developed country of that time.

In the enslaved countries, colonial policy caused the destruction of the productive forces, retarded the economic and political development of these countries, led to the plundering of vast areas and the extermination of entire peoples. Military confiscation methods played a major role in the exploitation of the colonies during that period. A striking example of the use of such methods is the policy of the British East India Company in Bengal, which it conquered in 1757. The consequence of this policy was the famine of 1769-1773, which killed 10 million Bengalis. In Ireland, during the 16th and 17th centuries, the British government confiscated and transferred to the English colonists almost all the lands belonging to the native Irish.

At the first stage of colonization of traditional societies, Spain and Portugal were in the lead. They managed to conquer most of South America.

Colonialism in Modern Times. With the transition from manufacturing to large-scale factory industry, significant changes took place in colonial politics. The colonies are economically more closely connected with the metropolises, turning into their agrarian and raw material appendages with a monocultural direction of agricultural development, into markets for industrial products and sources of raw materials for the growing capitalist industry of the metropolises. For example, the export of British cotton fabrics to India from 1814 to 1835 increased 65 times.

The spread of new methods of exploitation, the need to create special organs of colonial government that could consolidate domination over the local peoples, as well as the rivalry of various layers of the bourgeoisie in the metropolises led to the elimination of monopoly colonial trading companies and the transfer of the captured countries and territories under state control of the metropolises.

The change in the forms and methods of colonial exploitation was not accompanied by a decrease in its intensity. Enormous wealth was exported from the colonies. Their use led to the acceleration of socio-economic development in Europe and North America. Although the colonialists were interested in increasing the marketability of the peasant economy in the colonies, they often maintained and consolidated feudal and prefeudal relations, considering the feudal and tribal nobility in the colonized countries as their social support.

With the beginning of the industrial era, Great Britain becomes the largest colonial power. Having inflicted defeat on France in the course of a long struggle in the 18-19 centuries, she increased her possessions at her expense, as well as at the expense of the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal. Great Britain subdued India. In 1840-42 and together with France in 1856-60, she waged the so-called Opium Wars against China, as a result of which she imposed favorable treaties on China. She took possession of Xianggang (Hong Kong), tried to subjugate Afghanistan, captured strongholds in the Persian Gulf, Aden. Colonial monopoly, together with industrial monopoly, ensured Great Britain's position as the most powerful power for almost the entire 19th century. Colonial expansion was carried out by other powers as well. France subjugated Algeria (1830-48), Vietnam (50-80s of the 19th century), established its protectorate over Cambodia (1863), Laos (1893). In 1885, the Congo became the possession of the Belgian king Leopold II, and a system of forced labor was established in the country.

In the middle of the XVIII century. Spain and Portugal began to lag behind in economic development and how maritime powers were relegated to the background. Leadership in the colonial conquest passed to England. Beginning in 1757, the British East India Trading Company conquered almost all of Hindustan for almost a hundred years. In 1706, the English began to actively colonize North America. At the same time, the development of Australia was going on, to the territory of which the British sent criminals convicted to hard labor. The Dutch East India Company took over Indonesia. France established colonial rule in the West Indies as well as in the New World (Canada).

African continent in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Europeans settled only on the coast and was used mainly as a source of slaves. In the XIX century. Europeans advanced far inland and by the middle of the 19th century. Africa was almost completely colonized. The exceptions were two countries: Christian Ethiopia, which put up staunch resistance to Italy, and Liberia, created by former slaves, immigrants from the United States.

In Southeast Asia, the French captured most of the territory of Indochina. Only Siam (Thailand) retained relative independence, but a large territory was taken away from it.

By the middle of the XIX century. the Ottoman Empire came under strong pressure from the developed countries of Europe. The countries of the Levant (Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine), which were officially considered part of the Ottoman Empire during this period, became a zone of active penetration of Western powers - France, England, Germany. During the same period, Iran lost not only economic, but also political independence. At the end of the XIX century. its territory was divided into spheres of influence between England and Russia. Thus, in the XIX century. practically all the countries of the East fell into some form of dependence on the most powerful capitalist countries, turning into colonies or semi-colonies. For Western countries, the colonies were a source of raw materials, financial resources, labor, as well as sales markets. The exploitation of the colonies by the Western metropolises was of the most brutal and predatory nature. The wealth of the Western metropolises was created at the cost of merciless exploitation and plunder, and the relatively high standard of living of their population was maintained.

Colony types

According to the type of administration, settlement and economic development in the history of colonialism, three main types of colonies were distinguished:

· Resettlement colonies.

· Raw material colonies (or exploited colonies).

· Mixed (resettlement and raw material colonies).

Resettlement colonialism is a type of colonization management, the main goal of which was to expand the living space (the so-called Lebensraum) of the titular ethnic group of the metropolis to the detriment of autochthonous peoples. The resettlement colonies are experiencing a massive influx of immigrants from the metropolis, which usually form a new political and economic elite. The local population is suppressed, displaced, and often physically destroyed (i.e., genocide is carried out). The metropolis often encourages resettlement to a new place as a means of regulating its own population, as well as using new lands to exile unwanted elements (criminals, prostitutes, rebellious national minorities - Irish, Basques, etc.), etc. Israel is an example of a modern resettlement colony.

The key points in the creation of resettlement colonies are two conditions: a low density of the autochthonous population with a relative abundance of land and other natural resources. Naturally, resettlement colonialism leads to a profound restructuring of the life and ecology of the region in comparison with resource (raw material colonialism), which, as a rule, sooner or later ends with decolonization. There are examples in the world of mixed resettlement and raw material colonies.

The colonies of Spain (Mexico, Peru) and Portugal (Brazil) were the first examples of a mixed-type resettlement colony. But it was the British Empire, followed by the United States, the Netherlands and Germany, who began to pursue a policy of complete genocide of the autochthonous population in the newly occupied lands with the aim of creating uniformly white, English-speaking, Protestant resettlement colonies, which later turned into dominions. Having once made a mistake in relation to 13 North American colonies, England softened its attitude towards the new settlement colonies. From the very beginning, they were granted administrative and then political autonomy. These were the settlements in Canada, Australia and New Zealand. But the attitude towards the autochthonous population remained extremely cruel. The Road of Tears in the USA and the policy of White Australia in Australia became world famous. No less bloody were the reprisals of the British against their European competitors: the "Great Trouble" in French Acadia and the conquest of Quebec - the French colonies of the New World. At the same time, British India with its rapidly growing 300 million population, Hong Kong, Malaysia turned out to be unsuitable for British colonization due to its dense population and the presence of aggressive Muslim minorities. In South Africa, the local and newcomer (Boers) population was already quite large, but institutional segregation helped the British to carve out certain economic niches and land for a small group of privileged British colonists. White settlers often attracted third groups to marginalize the local population: Negro slaves from Africa in the United States and Brazil; Jewish refugees from Europe to Canada, farm laborers from the countries of Southern and Eastern Europe who did not have their own colonies; Indians, Vietnamese and Javanese coolies in Guiana, South Africa, USA, etc. The conquest of Siberia and America by Russia, as well as their further settlement by Russian and Russian-speaking settlers, also had much in common with resettlement colonialism. In addition to the Russians, Ukrainians, Germans and other peoples took part in this process.

With the passage of time, the resettlement colonies turned into new nations. This is how Argentines, Peruvians, Mexicans, Canadians, Brazilians, American Americans, Creoles of Guiana, Caldosha of New Caledonia, Breyons, Franco-Acadians, Cajuns, and French-Canadians (Quebecans) arose. Language, religion and community of culture continue to connect them with the former metropolis. The fate of some resettlement colonies ended tragically: the Pie-noirs of Algeria (Franco-Algerians), since the end of the twentieth century, European settlers and their descendants have been intensively leaving the countries of Central Asia and Africa (repatriation): in South Africa, their share fell from 21% in 1940 to 9% in 2010; in Kyrgyzstan from 40% in 1960 to 10% in 2010. In Windhoek, the proportion of whites fell from 54% in 1970 to 16% in 2010. Their proportion is also rapidly declining throughout the New World: in the United States, it fell from 88% in 1930. up to about 64% in 2010; in Brazil from 63% in 1960 to 48% in 2010.

Preconditions of new European colonialism, periodization of the process of formation of the colonial system, characteristics of the stages. Great geographical discoveries and the beginning of colonial conquests in Afro-Asian countries. XVI century - the century of Spain and Portugal in colonial expansion. The main directions and methods of colonial activity in European countries. The rise of commercial colonialism: trade “from Asia to Asia”. Christian missions in the East. Formation and activity of the European East India companies in the East in the XVII-XVIII centuries. East India Companies in Asia-to-Asia Trade. The principle of "trade with a sword in hand". The problem of the early capitalist stage in the history of colonialism. Development of the capitalist world system and Asian worlds-economies. Mercantilism and colonial expansion. Slave trade. The reasons for the transformation of the nature of European colonialism by the beginning of the XIX century. (socio-economic, military-political, ideological). Formation of industrial capitalism in Europe (XIX century) and its influence on the development of the colonial system. Decolonization of the New World and changes in the geography of colonialism. Free trade: its influence on the nature of colonial expansion, the peculiarities of interaction between metropolises and colonies. Colonial empires. The forced opening of East Asian countries and the imposition of unequal relations on Asian countries. The transformative impact of European capitalism on traditional Afro-Asian societies. Formation of Orientalism. The nature and forms of the anti-colonial struggle. "Imperialist" division of the world in the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries: preconditions, content, contradictions between the colonial powers, results. The struggle of the imperialist powers for the colonies as an integral part of the preconditions of the First World War.

Topic 3. The problem of modernization of Afro-Asian countries in modern times

The problem of transformation of Afro-Asian societies in modern times in foreign and domestic historiography. Paradigm "European challenge - Asian response". Theories of "traditional society" and "modernization". "Early modernism" - endogenous sources of modernization in non-European countries. The problem of the synthesis of "traditional" and "modern" in the research of Russian historians. Factors that led to the beginning of the modernization process in the countries of the East. The phenomenon of "protective modernization": content, specificity, results. Colonial modernization option. Economic and social components of the modernization process in Afro-Asian countries and their specificity: the emergence of capitalism, the development of science and technology, the formation of new social strata. Changes in social and political thought: enlightenment, reformism, nationalism. National liberation movement as part of the modernization process. The Era of Asia's Awakening: Asian Revolutions of the Early 20th Century The specifics of the Japanese version of the Meiji era modernization.

Section II. History of individual countries

Topic 1. China

Civilizational features of Chinese society. Factors that shaped the traditional culture of the Han people: the natural environment, the autarchy of agriculture, family and clan ties. Holism of Chinese consciousness. Three teachings ("san jiao"). Confucianism and its role in shaping Chinese society. Individual - society - state. Personality in Traditional China. The doctrine of imperial power. The state, the role of bureaucracy, the peculiarity of its formation. The shenshi institute as the most important stabilizing mechanism of the imperial system. Social prestige of scholarship. The problem of the relationship between elite and mass consciousness. Syncretism of popular beliefs. The ideas of egalitarianism in the mass peasant consciousness. The ethnocentric model of the ecumene as seen by the Han people. Chinese vassal-tributary system.

China in the late 16th - early 17th centuries Manchu conquest. New trends in economic, socio-political and cultural development. The concepts of "growth without development" and "early Chinese modernism" in historical literature. The crisis of the first half of the 17th century. and the factors that caused it. Insurgency in China. Li Zicheng. Fall of the Ming dynasty. Consolidation of the Manchu tribes at the beginning of the 17th century, the creation of a state, relations with China. The conquest of China by the Manchus. The defeat of the insurgency. The Role of the Chinese Elite in Establishing the Qing Dynasty. Wu Sangui. Fight against South Ming. Zheng Chenggong. “Three tributary princes” (sanfan) and their action against the Qing. Consequences of the Manchu conquest of China.

China during the Qing Dynasty (mid-17th - mid-19th centuries). A course towards the "pacification" of the country and the "era of prosperity" of the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong eras. Land tax measures. The position of cities, the development of crafts and trade. State system of Qing China, official ideology. Estates stratification of Chinese society. Manchus and the outside world. The policy of conquest of the Qing empire: China's new borders. Closed door policy. The growing crisis in the empire at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries: economic, demographic, social, political factors. Insurrectionary movement.

The Opium Wars and the Discovery of China. The nature of foreign trade during the period of isolation. Attempts to Peacefully "Open" China: British Missions. British East India Company and the opium smuggling. Fighting factions in the Qing Empire in connection with the opium trade. Lin Zexu's activities. The first "opium" war: pretext, course, results. Treaty of Nanking (1842) and additions to it. The second "opium" war of England and France against China. Tianjin (1858) and Peking (1860) treaties. The final establishment of the Russian-Chinese border during the second "opium" war.

Taiping Uprising. Prerequisites for the activation of the opposition movement in the late 18th - early 19th centuries, religious sects and secret societies. The personality of Hong Xiuquan, his teachings. Taiping uprising: periodization, characteristics of the stages. State of Taiping Tianguo, its military-political and administrative-economic activities. "The Land System of the Heavenly Empire." Internecine Struggle among the Taiping Leadership and the Weakening of Taiping Tianguo Hong Rengang's New Essay to Help Governance. Defeat Taiping. Estimates of the Taiping Rebellion in Russian and Chinese historiography.

"Movement for the assimilation of barbaric deeds." The origins of the movement, the activities of Wei Yuan and Feng Guifen. Emperor Xianfeng's decree (1861) and the beginning of the "self-empowerment" policy. Self-reinforcement reforms: their focus and content. The role of regional leaders. Li Hongzhang. Formation of regionalism. Features of the origin of Chinese capitalism. Changes in the ruling Manchu family: the promotion of Empress Dowager Cixi. The end of the policy of "self-reinforcement", its results.

China and the Powers in the 80s and 90s XIX century. Strengthening the economic and military-political expansion of foreign powers. Franco-Chinese War. Burmese problem. Ili crisis. The Sino-Japanese War and the division of the country into spheres of influence. Fighting for concessions. Foreign sector in the economy.

The emergence of Chinese nationalism. Socio-economic, worldview shifts in the traditional structure of China. The role of the southeastern regions of the country in the formation of the prerequisites for the emergence of nationalism. The impact of an external factor. The reformist direction of Chinese nationalism. Kang Yuwei: personality and ideas. "100 days" of the reforms of the Guangxu emperor. Palace coup on September 21, 1898 and its consequences. The revolutionary direction of Chinese nationalism. Sun Yatsen: goals, methods of struggle for their implementation.

The Qing Dynasty Crisis at the Beginning of the 20th Century The uprising of the Ichtuan: reasons, ideology, course. Powers intervention. "Final Protocol" 1901 "New Policy" (1901-1911): the content of the reforms and their results. The growth of social tension. The activities of the liberal opposition in exile. "Tongmenhoi" and Sun Yat-sen's Three Folk Principles. Uprising in the southern provinces.

Xinhai Revolution. Uchansk uprising. "New Army". North and South political centers. The proclamation of China as a republic. National Assembly and Provisional Constitution. Formation of political parties. Kuomintang and parliamentary elections in 1912 "Second revolution" in the southern provinces. Establishment of the Yuan Shikai dictatorship. Dujunata Institute. The results of the revolution and its assessment in historiography.

China during the First World War. China and the belligerent powers at the beginning of the war. The occupation of Shandong by Japan and the "21 Demands" to China. Anti-Japanese movement. Yuan Shikai's monarchical aspirations and their collapse. The victory of militaristic tendencies in the political life of China. Military groupings of the North and South, their struggle for power. China's entry into the war. Results of the First World War for China.

Topic 2. Japan

The civilizational specifics of Japanese society. The impact of natural-rheographic factors on the formation of personality and society. "Rice field culture". Features of the landscape, cultural and economic complexes and the intensity of information processes. "IE" as a model of relations in society. "Oya-ko": hierarchy, paternalism, group consciousness, ethics of relations. The role of Shinto in the formation of the "worldview" of the Japanese: naturocentrism, the cult of ancestors, mythology, the doctrine of supreme power, aesthetic principles. An external factor in the formation of the Japanese sociocultural system. Perception of the achievements of mainland (Chinese) culture. Methods of perceiving "alien": development of an adaptation mechanism. Buddhism and Confucianism: Originality of Perception and Place in Japanese Culture.

Japan during the Tokugawa shogunate (XVII-XVIII centuries): domestic and foreign policy. Completion of the unification of the country and the formation of a new political system under the shoguns Ieyasu, Hidetada and Iemitsu. State structure: bakuhan system, forms of shogun control over daimyo. The shogun is the emperor. The ideological system of the shogunate. Classical division of Japanese society: shi-no-ko-syo. Tokugawa foreign policy. "Closure of Japan": causes, consequences. Persecution of Christians. Relations with the Dutch.

Socio-economic development of Japan in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Development of the countryside and agriculture. Home industry. The growth of commodity-money relations. Urban development during the Tokugawa period. Types of Japanese cities. Role of Edo, Osaka and Kyoto. Japanese merchants and merchant associations. Commercial and entrepreneurial houses, their role in economic life, the establishment of a "special relationship" with the bakufu. Chönindo. The problem of the endogenous formation of the capitalist order in Japan in historical literature. The growing crisis in the 18th century. Kyoho and Kansei reforms.

Tokugawa Shogunate Crisis. Socio-economic situation in Japan at the beginning of the XIX century. Economic crisis manifestations. Decomposition of the estate structure. Social protest movement. Reforms of the Tempo years. Administrative reforms in the principalities. Formation of the anti-shogun movement. Spiritual Opposition to the Shogunate: Role of the Mito School, Schools of National Science and Rangaku. The growth of the political influence of the southwestern principalities. Japan's relations with foreign powers in the first half of the 19th century. "Discovery" of Japan and its consequences. The bakumatsu period. Civil War and the Meiji Restoration.

Modernization of the Meiji era. Internal and external prerequisites for transformations. Reforms: administrative, estate, military, agrarian (characteristics, assessment). Features of the industrial development of Japan in the 70-90s. XIX century. Political transformations: "jiyu minken undo"; the formation of the first political parties; constitution of 1889, electoral law and parliament, the nature of political power. Formation of the imperial system: the kokutai doctrine, the state religion of Shinto and the ideology of tennoism. Reforms in education, culture, everyday life. The peculiarity of the modernization of the Meiji era: the role of the state and bureaucracy, the slogan "wakon-yosai". Discussion in the historical literature about the nature of transformations in Japan.

Foreign policy of Japan in the late XIX - early XX century Formation of the goals of Japanese foreign policy. First territorial acquisitions and Korea policy. Japan's struggle to end unequal treaties. The war with China and its impact on society, participation in the suppression of the Ihetuan uprising, the Russian-Japanese war. Economic policy of Japan in the early twentieth century. Japan during the First World War: Strengthening Political and Economic Influence in the East Asian Region. Japanese Pan-Asianism.

Topic 3. India

Indian civilization: main features. Hinduism as a civilizational core, its organizational-regulatory and communicative-integrating role. Dialecticism, cyclicity and holism of Hindu thought. Doctrine of Karma. Brahminical ideology of social order. Castes and caste groups as the main agents of socialization. Social mobility channels. Features of the Indian personality genotype: homo hierarchicus. Lack of pan-Indian statehood and the tradition of political amorphousness as a result of the discrepancy between religious, cultural and political centers. Muslim conquests and the rise of statist tendencies. The nature of the Indian community, the reasons for its stability. The ability of the Indian civilization to adapt foreign cultural experience and the limits of this adaptation. Interaction of the Brahminist religious and cultural tradition with the Muslim sociocultural type in the era of the Mughals.

The collapse of the state of the Great Mughals (mid-17th - mid-18th centuries). From "peace for all" Akbar to the Muslim centralization of Aurangzeb: opposition of centripetal and centrifugal tendencies. The crisis of the jagira system, the evolution of the zamindari institute. Anti-Mogol movements: the Jat uprisings, the liberation struggle of the Marathas and Sikhs. Strengthening the separatism of the governors of the provinces. An external factor in the weakening of the empire: the invasion of Nadir Shah, the aggressive campaigns of Ahmed Shah Durrani.

The conquest of India by England (mid-18th - mid-19th centuries). Establishment of a trade monopoly of Europeans on sea routes to India. The role of the East Indian companies in trade with the countries of the East and the creation of strongholds on the Indian coast. Anglo-French struggle for India and its results. The conquest of India by the British East India Company: the main stages. Sipay army and tactics of "subsidiary agreements". Resistance of the peoples of India. Reasons for defeat.

English colonial regime (mid-18th - mid-19th centuries). English possessions in India under the management of the East India Company. The evolution of colonial rule in the second half of the 18th century: the Indian Government Act of 1773, the U. Peeta Jr. Act of 1784. Changes in the status of the East India Company: Acts of Parliament of 1813, 1833 and 1853. Land and tax reforms, the policy of the colonial authorities in relation to the Indian community. Events of the British in the field of legal proceedings and education.

Indian popular uprising of 1857-1859 The consequences of the completion of the industrial revolution in the metropolis for India. Aggravation of contradictions between Indian traditional society and the policy of the East India Company. The ideological preparation of the uprising: the role of Indian Muslims. The course of the uprising, the main centers, participants. The role of the Sipai units of the Bengal Army. Defeat of the uprising. Discussion in the literature about the nature of the uprising.

The system of colonial government and economic exploitation of India in the second half of the 19th century. Changes in the colonial apparatus: the transition of India to the control of the parliament and government of Great Britain. Administrative reforms, reorganization of the colonial army, strengthening ties with vassal princes, agrarian measures. Changes in economic policy: export of capital to India, areas of its application.

The transformation of Indian society in the second half of the 19th century. Specificity of the genesis of national capitalism. The role of the Indian merchant and usurious castes in the formation of the Indian capitalist order. The emergence of new social strata, the special role of intellectuals. Enlightenment. Socio-political and religious-philosophical thought: the main ideas of the representatives of the Muslim community (Abdul Latif, Karamat Ali, Sayyid Ahmad Khan). The East-West problem, relations with England and the ideas of reforming Hinduism in the views of Ramakrishna and Vivekananda. Early Indian nationalism: main trends, their characteristics. Formation of the Indian National Congress.

India at the beginning of the twentieth century. Growing dissatisfaction with the policies of the colonial authorities. Viceroy Curzon and the partition of Bengal. Liberation movement 1905-1908: campaigns under the slogans "swadeshi" and "swaraj", the position of the INC. The gap between moderate nationalists and supporters of B.G. Tilaka. The formation of religious and political parties: the emergence of Indian "communalism". Suppression of anti-English movement. Morley-Minto Law (1909). India during the First World War: Political and Economic Situation. The course of the metropolis to strengthen its positions. Revitalization of moderate nationalists: the Gomrul movement, the Lucknow congresses of the INC and the Muslim League. Actions of radical nationalists: the Qadr organization, the Provisional Indian Government in Kabul.

Topic 4. Ottoman Empire

Muslim civilizational supersystem. Assessment of the role of Islam in the formation of the basic values \u200b\u200bof the Muslim civilization: a historiographic aspect. Religious and Rational in the History of Social Thought of Muslim Intellectuals: Ideas of the Mutazillites and Representatives of the "Golden Age" of Arab Philosophy. Affirmation of the religious-orthodox, conservative-protective tendency. The universal nature of Islam in the organization of society. The ideal of the ummah as a fusion of sociopolitical and religious communities, its divergence with local forms of ethnic and social stratification. The image of the ruler as a stronghold of the ideal of Islam, the purity of the ummah and the guarantor of the existence of a community. Autonomy of political elites, their typology. The role and place of the Muslim clergy. Socio-psychological type of personality in the Muslim East. The value of the al-qadar principle in the development of a stereotype of behavior, its impact on the mass consciousness. Social mobility channels. Koran, Sharia and Muslim business activities. Economic concepts of Islam. The impact of religion on culture. Feature of Muslim statehood. Relations with non-Muslims. Combining the imperial system with the status autonomy of subordinate religious communities. The adaptive capabilities of Islam, its ability to integrate foreign elements.

Ottoman Empire in the 17th - first half of the 18th centuries The reasons for the decline of the Ottoman Empire in historiography. Structural crisis of the empire: main features. The crisis of the military-fief system and its consequences. The evolution of agrarian relations. The state of the craft and trade. Transformation in the composition of the Ottoman ruling elite: the growing role of the Ayan. The crisis of the military organization. Decomposition of the Janissary army. The beginning of the military defeats of the Ottomans. Changes in the nature of relations between the Port and the European powers. Franco-Turkish treaty of 1740

Deepening of the crisis of the empire in the second half of the 18th century. The crisis of the imperial order. Changes in the relationship between center and periphery: increasing centrifugal tendencies. Approval of independent and semi-independent rulers in Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Lebanon. The emergence of the first Saudi state in Arabia. The situation in the Balkans: socio-economic shifts, the formation of the idea of \u200b\u200bliberation and national revival among the Christian peoples conquered by the Turks. "Eastern question": preconditions, essence, participants and their interests, geographical area.

The era of reforms. Selim III's reforms as an example of "protective modernization". The nizam-i-jedit system, its assessment. Reasons for the defeat of the initial stage of modernization of the empire. Mahmud II's transformations: successes and failures. Aggravation of the "Eastern question" during the struggle of the Greeks for independence. Turkish-Egyptian conflicts: causes, course, results. Tanzimat. Gulhanei Hutt-i-Sheriff of 1839 and the reforms of the first stage of tanzimat. Ottomanism. The role of M. Reshid Pasha. Crimean war and its impact on the balance of power in the "Eastern question". Khatt-i-humayun 1856, transformations of the 50-60s. XIX century. The significance of the reforms of the tanzimata period.

The origin of the constitutional movement. Prerequisites: the growth of contacts with the West, socio-economic shifts, the role of intellectuals in the formation of a new view of the imperial order and the world around them, the development of educational ideas. I. Shinasi and N. Kemal. "New Ottomans": the nature of society, the main stages of activity, the idea of \u200b\u200btransforming the state system, the concept of Ottomanism.

Midhat Pasha and the 1876 Constitution. Aggravation of the situation in the Balkans: the "Bosnian crisis". Financial insolvency Ports. Midhat Pasha and his role in the political events of the mid-1870s. "Year of the Three Sultans". Constitution of 1876: circumstances of its proclamation, main provisions, assessment. The failure of the international conference in Istanbul and the aggravation of the "Eastern question". Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 Treaty of San Stefano and Treaty of Berlin.

Ottoman Empire in the late 19th - early 20th centuries The state of the economy: the dominance of traditional structures, the specificity of the origin of the centers of capitalism. The role of non-Turkish ethnic groups in entrepreneurship. Activities of foreign capital: areas of application. The problem of the Ottoman debt and the establishment of financial control over the Port. Struggle of powers for railway concessions. The personality of Sultan Abdul-Hamid II. Zulum mode: main features. Incitement to ethnic hatred. The ideas of pan-Islamism in the Sultan's policy. Foreign policy of Abdul Hamid II. Evolution of the "Eastern question".

The Young Turkish Movement and the Revolution of 1908-1909 Formation of opposition to the Zulum regime: the Unity and Progress organization. Ittihadist congresses in 1902 and 1907, their decisions. Speech by the "army of the movement" and restoration of the constitution of 1876. Program of the Ittihadists, parliamentary elections. An attempt at a counter-revolutionary coup and the deposition of Abdul-Hamid II. Assessment of the events of 1908-1909: discussion in the literature.

Ottoman Empire during the reign of the Young Turks. Domestic policy of the Young Turks. Struggle for power between the Young Turkish political parties. The coming to power of the triumvirate. Foreign policy of the Young Turks: rapprochement with Germany, Balkan wars, loss of Libya. The crisis of the doctrine of Ottomanism, the birth of the idea of \u200b\u200bTurkism (Ziya Hekalp). Aggravation of contradictions between the great powers on the "Eastern question". The circumstances of the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the First World War. The course of hostilities. The situation in the Arab provinces: the strengthening of anti-Turkish sentiment. "Great Arab Revolution" 1916 Secret negotiations between England and France on the division of Arab countries. London's Course towards Cooperation with the World Zionist Organization: Balfour's Declaration on the Establishment of a Jewish "National Home" in Palestine. Economic and socio-political situation in the country at the end of the war. Turkey's Surrender: The Mudros Truce.

Topic 5. Egypt, Sudan

Egypt under the rule of Muhammad Ali. Situation in Egypt at the end of the 18th century: strengthening the position of the Mamluks. Bonaparte's expedition (1798-1801) and its results. The coming to power of Muhammad Ali. The fight against the Mamluks. Muhammad Ali's transformations in the field of agricultural relations, trade, industry. Military and administrative reforms. Changes in the field of culture and education. Introduction of a comprehensive state control system. Transformation results. Foreign policy of Muhammad Ali: relations with the Sultan, the conquest of Eastern Sudan and punitive expeditions to Arabia. Position during the Greek uprising. Turkish-Egyptian conflicts and capitulation of 1841

Egypt after Muhammad Ali: a new stage of modernization (50-70s of the XIX century). Struggle in the ruling elite after the death of Muhammad Ali. Abbas-Khilmi: a course for the revival of antiquity and the Old Ottoman order. The Politics of Said and Ismail: Liberal Reforms of 1854-1879 Arabization of the army and state apparatus. Egypt as an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire.

Construction of the Suez Canal and the financial enslavement of Egypt. Anglo-French rivalry in Egypt. French project for the construction of a shipping channel. The role of F. de Lesseps. Construction of the Suez Canal. The international significance of the canal, the consequences of its construction for Egypt. Financial bankruptcy, establishment of Anglo-French control over Egyptian finances. Formation of the "European cabinet".

Liberation movement in Egypt. The activity of the "European cabinet" and the growth of discontent in the country. Activation of the currents of social, political and religious thought. Educational movement. The emergence of nationalist organizations. The mood in the Egyptian army, the position of the "fellah officers". The personality of A. Orabi. Army speeches in 1879 and 1881: changes in the alignment of political forces. "Revolution" September 9, 1881 Vatanists come to power. The position of the European powers. Anglo-Egyptian War of 1882 Assessment of the Orabi Pasha uprising in historical literature.

Egypt under the rule of England. The occupation regime in Egypt. Lord Cromer's policy: resolving the question of the Egyptian debt, the Suez Canal regime, the course for the development of cotton growing. Colonial capitalism: main features. Formation of political parties and organizations of a modern type. "Khediva Fronde". M. Camille. Social and political upsurge in 1906-1912 The beginning of the war between England and Turkey and the establishment of a protectorate over Egypt. The importance of Egypt for England during the First World War.

Eastern Sudan. General characteristics: ethnosocial composition of the population, religion, economy, policy of the Turkish administration. Increased tax exploitation of the population of Sudan in the 1870s. The growing discontent in the country, the role of the religious factor. The personality of Muhammad Ahmed. The uprising of the Makhdists (1881-1898): periodization, characteristics of the stages. Formation of an independent Mahdist state. British intervention, Battle of Omdurman. Establishment of an Anglo-Egyptian condominium.

Topic 6. Countries of the Arab West (Maghreb)

Maghreb countries: common and special. Rule of the Maidens in Algeria. The French intervention: reasons, pretext, course of conquest, hotbeds of resistance. Characteristics of the French colonial regime in Algeria. The beginning of the transformation of Algerian society. Features of the anti-colonial protest at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries: traditionalists and "Musulfrans". Husseinid Tunisia. Attempts to Europeanization (30-50-ies of the XIX century.). The interests of the powers in Tunisia. Establishment of a French protectorate. Morocco: ethnopolitical and socio-economic situation. Struggle of European powers for the partition of Morocco. French invasion, protectorate treaty. Two "Moroccan crises". Libya: the rule of the Karamanli dynasty, the second conquest of Tripolitania by the Turks, the Senusiyya order and its relationship with the Turkish authorities. Italian aggression in Libya, the role of the Senusites in organizing resistance to the colonialists. The results of the colonial division of the countries of North Africa.

Topic 7. Iran

Iran in the 18th century The role of ancient statehood, the institution of hereditary monarchy, imperial traditions and Shiism in the formation of the sociocultural exclusivity of Iranians. Features of Shiite dogma: the doctrine of the Imamate. The cult of the martyrs. Shiite shrines. Geographical factor in the history of Iran. Influence of nomadic invasions on statehood, economy, culture and ethnic processes. Decline of the Safavid Empire. Conquest of Iran by Afghans, consequences. The nomination of Nadir Khan, his struggle for the liberation and unification of the country. State of Nadir Shah Afshar. The era of civil strife: zendas and kajars. The coming to power of the Qajar dynasty.

Political and socio-economic development of Iran (first half of the 19th century). The first kajar shahs, their characteristics. The organization of the central government, the system of administrative management of the country. The clergy: their financial position, role in worship, education and the political and legal system of the state. Ethnic composition of the population, the role of the nomadic factor. The state of agriculture, forms of land ownership. The nature of the relationship: peasant - landowner. City, craft, trade.

Foreign policy of the Qajars. Activation of the policy of the European powers in Iran at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. Russian-Iranian wars and their results. Herat conflict: reasons, course, results. The positions of foreign powers in Iran by the middle of the 19th century.

The Babid movement. Internal and external prerequisites. Periodization. Personality of the Bab. The main provisions of his doctrine of a just society. Social composition of the Babis. Gathering in Bedasht: demarcation among the followers of the Bab. Radical direction: representatives, ideas, methods. Suppression of the Babid movement, consequences. Assessment of movement: a discussion in the literature.

An attempt at reforms "from above" in Iran. The coming to power of Mirza Tagi Khan: the situation in the country. Reforms of Tagi Khan: administrative-political and military transformations. Economic policy. Cultural and educational reforms. Attitude to the policy of Tagi Khan of Russia and England. Activation of opponents of reforms: resignation of Mirza Tagi Khan. Reasons for the failure of Iran's modernization.

Iran in the second half of the 19th century. The transformation of Iran into a semi-colony. England and Russia: forms and methods of penetration into Iran. Anglo-Russian agreement on the division of Iran (1907): preconditions, content, consequences. The nature of economic and social processes in Iran in the last third of the XIX - early XX century. Features of the genesis of the capitalist structure, the role of an external factor. The initial process of the formation of Iranian nationalism. The first nationalists and their ideas. Mass movement for the elimination of the English tobacco monopoly.

Iran at the beginning of the twentieth century. Constitutional movement 1905-1911 in Iran: preconditions, participants in the movement and their goals, the role of the Shiite clergy, characteristics of the stages, results of the movement, its assessment in historiography. Iran during the First World War: Iran and the belligerent powers; struggle within the country regarding the position in the war. "National Defense Committee" in Qom and "national government" in Kermanshah. Anglo-Russian agreement on Iran (1915). Strengthening the national liberation movement. Revolution of 1917 in Russia and Iran.