Please follow up for help. Methods and methods of scientific knowledge. Creation of a single form as a result of investigation

Science is a specific activity of people whose main purpose is to obtain knowledge about reality. Knowledge is the main product of scientific activity. The products of science can be extended to the same style of rationality, which expands to all areas of human activity; and adjusted, installations and methods, so that we can stand behind the boundaries of science, ahead of the production industry. Scientific activity is a core of moral values.

Although science is oriented towards the extraction of relevant knowledge of reality, science and truth are not the same. The relevant knowledge may be non-scientific. It can be denied in various spheres of human activity: in everyday life, economics, politics, science, and engineering. In contrast to science, the abstract knowledge of reality is not the main, initial principle of these spheres of activity (in science, for example, such a main principle is new artistic values, in engineering - technologist ii, in the economy – efficiency, etc.). ).

It is important to say that the designation “unscientific” does not convey a negative assessment. Scientific activity is specific. Other spheres of activity - everyday life, literature, economics, politics and others. - the skin has its own meanings, its marks. The role of science in married life is growing, and scientific grounding is always possible and predictable.

The history of science shows that scientific knowledge is not always true. The concept of “scientific” often gets stuck in situations that do not guarantee the acquisition of relevant knowledge, especially when it comes to theories. A lot (mostly) of scientific theories emerged in the process of development of science.

Science does not recognize parascientific concepts: alchemy, astrology, parapsychology, ufology, torsion fields, etc. Vaughn does not recognize this concept not for what he does not want, but for what he cannot, following the words of T. Huxley, “by taking it on faith, science commits self-destruction.” But there are no reliable, precisely established facts for such concepts. Possible outbreaks. However, parascience concepts and objects of parascience can sometimes be transformed into scientific concepts and objects of science. For which it is necessary to create the results of experiments, it is necessary for scientists to understand the development of the theory and the transfer of the remaining ones. For example, alchemy as a parascience about the transformation of elements has been “extended” by current scientific research related to the radioactive transformation of elements.

In response to this type of problem, F. Bacon wrote this: “It is correct to suggest that, if you were shown the images displayed in the temple of the survivors from a ship accident brought to the inhabitants of the monastery, and in this case, the conclusions were made, and now you know that God can ів, having asked from his drawing : “And where are the images of those who perished after they brought the monastery?” TAKA PIDSTAVA MAIZH VSIKh Zaboboniv - in astrologer, at the proprietary, at the prophetys of Tosh. The pose of the respect to pass through those, I was shaking, I was left to the bouvagato. "Tim hour, in Denmark, yak і wound phenomena and objects that, in the view of parascience or belief, can be transformed into a subject of scientific knowledge. For example, the problem of the “Shroud of Turin” is known. The evidence of the body of the founder of the Christian religion was preserved for its explanations. ii, and the nature of this pattern was still visible. The results of scientific research , extracted from the victorious computer processing of the trivial images of this sample and published in the scientific department, clearly show that the result of the interaction with the fabric shroud is due to the intense energy impulse, according to any sign walked in the middle of the shroud. The nature of this shroud is no longer a mystery, which will require further scientific investigation

The important questions of modern science are connected with the fact that today it is a profession. Until recently, science was dominated by the activity of many scientists. It was not a profession and was not specially funded in any way. As a rule, in the past they have secured their living in exchange for payment for their work in universities. Protein today is a special profession. In the 20th century, the concept of “scientific practitioner” appeared. There are nearly 5 million people in the world who are professionally engaged in science.

The developments of science are characterized by the continuity of different directions. New ideas and theories are being strengthened by intense struggle. M. Planck said from this statement: “Make new scientific truths spread not so that their opponents are converted and they recognize their wrongness, but what is more important is that their opponents gradually die out, and the growing generation conquers the truth immediately ". The development of science comes from the constant struggle of different thoughts, directly, the struggle for the recognition of ideas.

What are the criteria of scientific knowledge, what are its characteristic signs?

One of the important advantages of scientific knowledge is its systematization. This is one of the criteria for scientific excellence. All knowledge can be systematized by science. Cookbook, phone number, road atlas, etc. etc. - through knowledge it is classified and systematized. Scientific systematization is specific. For her, the power lies in completeness, inconsistency, clear principles of systematization and, most importantly, the internal, scientifically grounded logic of the motivation behind this systematization.

Scientific knowledge as a system has a structure, the elements of which are facts, laws, theories, pictures of the world. Several scientific disciplines are interconnected and interdependent. The importance of solidity and evidence of knowledge is an important criterion for scientific knowledge. The grounding of knowledge, bringing them into a single system was characteristic of science. From the point of view of evidence, knowledge is attributable to the very guilt of science. The different methods of priming scientific knowledge will be stagnated. To consolidate empirical knowledge, a large number of re-verifications, the selection of various experimental methods, statistical processing of experimental results, and aggregation to uniform experimental results are required. When grounding theoretical concepts, their non-superversity, consistency with empirical data, and the ability to describe and transfer the phenomenon are verified.

Science values original, “divine” ideas that allow you to take a completely new look at things at home. However, the focus on innovation is consistent with the elimination of all subjective results from the results of scientific activity, related to the specifics of the new thing itself. This is one of the aspects of science versus mystery. If the artist had not created his creation, then it simply would not have happened. If there were any belief, let the great one say, without creating a theory, then it would still be created, because it is a necessary stage in the development of science, and the reflection of the objective world. This explains the overnight creation of the song theory with various ideas that are often avoided. Gauss and Lobachevsky are the creators of non-Euclidean geometry, Poincaré and Einstein are the creators of the theory of validity and others.

Although scientific activity is specific, it stagnates in the practices of mercifulness, which are used by people in other spheres of activity, in everyday life. For any type of human activity, the characteristic methods are the following: induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, abstraction and abstraction, idealization, description, explanation, transfer Chenna, hypothesis, confirmation, statement, etc.

The main methods of removing empirical knowledge from science are caution and experimentation.

Caution - this is a method of removing empirical knowledge, in case of any confusion - do not introduce it when the process of caution is followed up to the reality of any change.

For the sake of caution, as part of the experiment, the phenomenon that is being studied is placed in a special mind. As F. Bacon wrote, “the nature of speech reveals itself more beautifully in a state of artificial constraint than in natural freedom.”

It is important to say that empirical research cannot begin without a strong theoretical approach. I would like to say that facts are the truth of the past, about the common reality, it is impossible without theoretical motives. I.P. Pavlov wrote from his report this way: “... at any moment it is necessary to reveal secret statements about the subject, so that there is, then the facts are revealed...”.

The work of science is not limited to collecting factual material. Scientific theories do not stand as direct interpretations of empirical facts. As A. Einstein wrote, “no logical path is aware of the basic principles of theory.” Theories arise from the complex interaction between theoretical thought and empirical knowledge, from the current development of theoretical problems, from the process of interaction between science and culture in general. With everyday theory, different methods of theoretical thought have been used. In the course of a clear experiment, the theorist develops possible options for the behavior of the idealized objects that he separates. One of the most important clear experiments in the history of natural science takes place in Galileo’s criticism of the Aristotelian theory of motion. It is simply Aristotle’s assumption that the natural fluidity of the heavy body is greater, the lower fluidity of the light body. “If we take two falling bodies,” says Galileo, “the natural fluidity of which is different, and we combine the body that collapses more quickly with the body that collapses more, it is clear that collapse of the body, which falls swedishly, calm down, and collapse Another body - to speed up." In this way, the firepower will be less than the speed of one falling body. However, two bodies, united at the same time, add up a body larger than the cob body, because there is little great fluidity, so it turns out that it is more important that the body collapses with less fluidity, the one is lighter, and not to mention the poaching. The fragments of Aristotelian assumption were one of the reasons for the proof, but now it is simple: its absurdity has been demonstrated. Another example of a clear experiment is the development of the phenomenon of the atomism of light in ancient Greek philosophy, which lies in the subsequent cutting of any speech into two halves. As a result of repeated repetition of this action many times, it is necessary to choose between the newest known words (which, of course, is impossible) and the smallest part of the atom. The closest obvious experiments are the Carnot cycle in thermodynamics, and the remaining obvious experiments in the theory of fluidity and quantum mechanics, including Einstein’s special theory of fluidity. .

A mathematical experiment is a current type of explicit experiment, in which the results of the variation of minds in a mathematical model can be tested on computers. An example is the Monte Carlo method, which allows mathematical modeling of fallout processes (diffusion, dispersion of electrons in solids, detection, connections, etc.) and any processes that involve fallout factors, and the assessment itself of an integral with the help of the average value of the integral function of the singing phased value with the help of the subdivision function. In this case, it is necessary to compare the large number of experimental data with a practically inextricable set of scaled values, which are removed when changing a large number of parameters in order to confirm the correctness of the mathematical experiment.

Of great importance for scholars, especially for theorists, is the philosophical interpretation of the cognitive traditions that have developed, the consideration of the researched reality in the context of the picture of the world. The development of philosophy is especially relevant at a turning point in the development of science. Great scientific achievements were associated with philosophical discoveries. Philosophy strives for an effective description, explanation, and understanding of the reality studied by science. Often, philosophers themselves, as a result of understanding the hidden picture of the world, arrive at fundamental discoveries that may be of greater importance for the sciences. It’s worth remembering the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus’s memory about Budova’s atomistic speech or calling the famous father G.F. Hegel's "Philosophy of Nature", which gives a philosophical picture of the world. The historical significance of the “Philosophy of Nature” lies in the trial of rational systematization and the establishment of a connection between the adjacent stages of the development of inorganic and organic nature. Zokrema, this allowed Hegel to transfer the periodic system of elements: “The track would put itself in the task of knowing the indicators of the inputs to a number of pet animals as a system that flows from the rules, which would specify the arithmetic multiplicity into a series of harmonious Vuzliv The same obligation is imposed and understanding the meaning of a number of chemical sporidities." In their own way, the great descendants of nature, the magnificent natural phenomena, rose to the level of philosophical understanding of natural laws. This is the universal principle of additionality, formulated by N. Bohr: more precisely determining one of the characteristics of an object or phenomenon, which complements one of the other, leads to a change in the accuracy of others. This principle is implemented in all methods that protect nature, people, and marriage. Quantum mechanics uses the Heisenberg principle: (formula "src="http://hi-edu.ru/e-books/xbook331/files/AD3.gif". Another butt is the influence of electromagnetic vibration: manifesting a corpuscular nature. Subject to the experiment, matter reveals its corpuscular power. For example, light appears to act as an electromagnetic flux when interacting with diffraction particles and is described by the Maxwell equation system. In further studies on the modern photoelectric effect, the Compton effect, light behaves like a particle (photon) with energy by the formula "src="http://hi-edu.ru/e-books/xbook331/files/AD5.gif" border=" 0 " align="absmiddle" alt="- Electromagnetic vibration frequency

With increasing frequency, Occam's razor: the closer we are to the truth, the simpler the basic laws that they describe, because: do not multiply the essentials as necessary, then explain the facts in the simplest way.

The famous chemist and philosopher M. Polanyi showed, for example, the 50s of the 20th century that when you change your mind, where things go in work, it is impossible to figure out in language. Polani wrote: “The great amount of time in which students of chemistry, biology and medicine devote themselves to practical pursuits, bear witness to the important role that in these disciplines the transfer of practical knowledge plays from teacher to student. what has been said can be expanded upon in the very center of science is aware of the hallucinations of practical knowledge, which cannot be conveyed through formulas." Polanyi called knowledge of this type implicit. This knowledge is transmitted through the appearance of texts, and through the thorough demonstration of expressions and the thorough consolidation of sciences ій school.

The term “mentality” is used to designate these aspects of spiritual culture, such as expressions of obvious knowledge, which truly represent the revelations of a different era or people. However, every science has its own mentality, which is different from other delusions of scientific knowledge, but is closely related to the mentality of the era.

The most important means of preserving and expanding the scientific mentality is the migration of work from laboratory to laboratory, especially within one region, as well as the creation and support of scientific schools. Only from scientific schools can young people acquire scientific evidence, knowledge, methodology and the mentality of scientific creativity. Like a butt, you can tell the physicist about the schools of Rutherford beyond the cordon and the school of A.F. Joffe in our country. The ruination of scientific schools leads to a complete ruination of scientific traditions and science itself.

Scientific research: goals, methods, types

The form of this development of science is scientific research, so that the study of phenomena and processes using scientific methods, the analysis of the influx of various factors on them, as well as the study of the interaction between phenomena from the method of abstraction is brought to an end. Both are useful for science and practice, making decisions with maximum effect.

The meta of scientific research is the importance of a specific object and the comprehensive, reliable development of its structure, characteristics, connections on the basis of scientific principles and methods of knowledge, as well as the elimination of human results that are necessary for the effectiveness of human activity. Nya have virobnitstvo with distant effect.

The basis for the development of skin scientific research is methodology, so that a set of methods, methods, techniques and their entire sequence are adopted in the development of scientific research. The complete methodology is the scheme, the plan for the implementation of the scientific research department

Scientific research may be subject to continuous development, based on the relationship between theory and practice.

An important role for scientific research is played by the development of scientific research, which is of greatest interest to both empirical and theoretical ones.

Empirical data are directly identified, more precisely, a description and careful analysis of various factors in the analysis of phenomena and processes. In scientific research, the stench depends on the use of various methods of knowledge, caution and experiment.

Caution is a way of knowing from whom an object is taken without being handed over to another; fix, deprive the power of the object, the nature of the change.

An experiment is the most advanced empirical method of knowledge, in which not only caution and suppression are generated, but also a rearrangement, a change in the object of investigation, etc. In this method, an influx can be detected. one factor to another. Empirical methods of knowledge play a great role in scientific research. They are only the basis for strengthening theoretical ideas, but often become the subject of new research and scientific research. Theoretical studies are aimed at the identification and identification of causes, connections, and deposits, which make it possible to establish the behavior of an object, to determine its structure, characteristics on the basis of scientific principles and methods of knowledge. As a result of the rejection of knowledge, laws are formulated, theories are developed, facts are verified, and so on. Theoretical knowledge is formulated in such a way that they can be verified empirically.

In the most empirical and purely theoretical tasks of scientific research, it is important to follow a logical method of knowledge, which allows, on the basis of analytical interpretation, to explain phenomena and processes, various propositions, etc. Yes, install the routes of their vertices. This method is based on the results of empirical studies.

The results of scientific research should be assessed in this way, the greater the science of the development of principles and the accuracy of their effectiveness. The stench threatens to create the basis of new scientific discoveries.

One of the most important benefits that hangs before scientific investigation, and scientific investigation, is how to establish the location and connections between investigational phenomena and processes and generate scientific discoveries. The greater the scientific knowledge, the greater the scientific fervor of research.

Beyond scientific research there are theoretical and applied ones.

Theoretical research directly leads to the creation of new principles. This, please, is fundamental research. Their goal is to expand the knowledge of marriage and help to better understand the laws of nature. Such research is important for the further development of new theoretical research, which can be long-term, budgetary, etc.

Applied research is focused on the creation of new methods, based on the development of new equipment, new machines and materials, methods of production and organization of work, etc. They are responsible for satisfying the need for marriage in the development of a specific field of production. Applications can be long-line or short-line, budgetary or state-contracted.

The meta-development is to transform applied (or theoretical) research into technical additions. The stench is necessary to carry out new scientific research about.

Kintsev’s meta-analysis, which is carried out at pre-exploration design bureaus (OKB), design, pre-examination production facilities, is to prepare material for production.

The last work will end in the song sequence. The process of conquest includes six stages:

1) formulation by those;

2) formulation of the mark and task of investigation;

3) theoretical research;

4) experimental research;

5) analysis and registration of scientific research;

6) promotion and effectiveness of scientific research.

Skin scientific research covers the topic. The topic may include the nutrition of science and technology. Grounding with those is an important stage in the development of scientific research.

Scientific research is classified under different signs:

a) for the species connection with the huge vibrancy - scientific research, directed to the creation of new processes, machines, designs, etc., which are constantly being developed to improve the efficiency of vibrancy;

scientific research aimed at improving the production process, advancing the level of production organization without creating new methods of practice;

Theoretical work in the field of nursing, humanities and other sciences, which are used to replenish the living tissues, improve the level of spiritual life of people and others;

b) due to the equal importance for the people's rule

Works that are assigned to the departments of ministries and departments;

Investigations that follow the plan (initiative) of scientific research organizations;

c) closely related to financing

State budgetary funds, which are financed from the state budget;

Lords, which are financed accordingly until the conclusion of agreements between sponsoring organizations, such as scientific research in this country, and organizations that conclude research;

It should be noted that publications that systematically reveal the features and methods of action are practically impossible. Material about them is scattered from various jerels. Therefore, we wanted to take a closer look at the system and try out the features and methods of scientific research in the singing system. In addition, most of the methods lie not only in science, but also in practical activities, and even in basic activities.

Koshty scientific research (zasobi piznannya). As science progresses, it becomes more complex and complete Features of knowledge: material, mathematical, logical, logical In addition, in the remaining time before them, it may be necessary to add informational features as a special class. All functions of knowledge are specially created functions. Whose senses, material, informational, mathematical, logical, physical, cognitive abilities have strong power: they are designed, created, divided, arranged for these and other cognitive purposes iley.

Material benefits knowledge – this is what we need to do first for scientific research. In the history of the guilt of material methods of knowledge, the formation of empirical methods of investigation - observation, experiment, experiment - is associated.

These points are directly focused on the objects that are being studied, and they have a major role to play in the empirical revision of hypotheses and other results of scientific research, in the creation of new objects and facts. Vikoristannya of material methods of knowledge in science - microscope, telescope, synchrophasotron, satellites of the Earth, etc. - It gives a deep infusion to the formation of the conceptual apparatus of sciences, to the methods of describing the objects that are studied, to the methods of development and manifestation, to the development of formalization, idealization and arguments.

Information features pіznanya. The mass development of computing technology, information technology, and telecommunication technologies is radically transforming scientific research activities in the rich fields of science, working with them in the ways of scientific knowledge. In addition, in the last decade, computing technology has been widely used to automate experiments in physics, biology, engineering sciences, etc., which allows hundreds, thousands of times to complete research kі procedures and speed up the hour of data processing. In addition, information technology makes it possible to significantly simplify the processing of statistical data in almost all fields of science. And the use of satellite navigation systems often improves the accuracy of surveys in geodesy, cartography, etc.

Mathematical skills pіznanya. The development of mathematical knowledge gives an ever greater influx into the development of everyday science, and it penetrates into the humanities and general sciences.

Mathematics, being a science about large scales and spacious forms, abstracted from their specific place, it has broken down and defined the specific features of the form from the place and formulated the rules for viewing the form as an independent object in Looking at the numbers, the multiplicities, what I say makes it easier and speeds up the process of learning allows you to better identify connections between objects, such as abstracted form, identify output positions, and ensure the accuracy and consistency of judgments. Mathematical methods make it possible to see not only the abstracted large numbers and spacious forms, but also the logically possible ones that can be derived according to logical rules from previously known parts and forms.

With the influx of mathematical skills, knowledge recognizes the essential changes in the theoretical apparatus of descriptive sciences. Mathematical methods make it possible to systematize empirical data, identify and formulate numerous relationships and patterns. Mathematical methods are also used as special forms of idealization and analogies (mathematical modeling).

Logical features pіznanya. Whether any investigator has had the opportunity to virishuvat logical design:

- what logical reasons should be satisfied with the world, which allows objective-reference systems to work; How can we control the nature of these worlds?

– What logical reasons can be satisfied with the description of empirically guarded characteristics?

– how is it logical to analyze the output systems of scientific knowledge, how do some knowledge systems relate to other knowledge systems (for example, in sociology and related psychology)?

- What is a scientific theory that allows us to give scientific explanations, transfers, etc.?

The addition of logical features in the process of inducing evidence and evidence allows the investigator to strengthen the control of arguments from intuitively and uncritically accepted, untruths from the true, misdirection from contradiction.

Movni zasobi pіznanya. It is important for us to understand, clearly, the rules in order to understand the importance (definition). Every scientific researcher has to clarify the introduced concepts, symbols and signs, and learn new concepts and signs. The meanings are always connected with mine as a separate knowledge and expression of knowledge.

The rules of research are both natural and artificial, with the help of which the investigator will develop his own evidence and evidence, formulate hypotheses, remove foundations, etc., and be the final point of cognitive activities. Knowing them also contributes to the effectiveness of the development of personal knowledge in scientific research.

The methods of scientific knowledge (investigation methods) are in charge of the methods of knowledge.

Methods of scientific research. The original, sometimes primary role of any scientific robots is played by stagnants research methods.

Investigation methods are divided into empirical(empirical – verbatim – perceived by the eyes of the organs sensitively) i theoretically(Div. Table 3).

Several methods of tracing traces indicate such a situation. In the literature of epistemology and methodology, there is a growing trend of scientific methods, scientific methods, and theoretical methods. So, the dialectical method, the theory (if it appears in the function of the method - below), the revealed and the most pronounced differences, the emergence of hypotheses, etc. It is customary to call, without explaining why (let’s face it, the authors of such explanations could not be found in the literature) methods of knowledge. And methods such as analysis, synthesis, alignment, abstraction and concretization, etc., which are the main rational operations, are methods of theoretical investigation.

A similar field is in place with empirical surveillance methods. So, V.I. Zagvyazinsky divides empirical investigation methods into two groups:

1. Robotic, private methods. These include: study of literature, documents and results of activities; be careful; internment(speaking and writing); method of expert assessments; testing.

2. Complex, advanced methods that will be based on one or more other methods: quilting; monitoring; marriage and marriage until the end; before the work; experiment.

Methods of scientific research

THEORETICAL	EMPIRICAL
method-operations	methods	method-operations	methods
¨ analysis ¨ synthesis ¨ refinement ¨ abstraction ¨ concretization ¨ formalization ¨ formalization ¨ induction ¨ deduction ¨ idealization ¨ analogy ¨ modeling ¨ explicit ex experiment ¨ uyava	¨ dialectics (as a method) ¨ scientific theories, verified by practice ¨ proof ¨ method of analysis of knowledge systems ¨ deductive (axiomatic) method ¨ inductive-deductive method ¨ identification and development of contradictions ¨ formulation of problems ¨ determination hypotheses	¨ study of literature, documents and results of activity ¨ caution ¨ observation ¨ testing (sleep and writing) ¨ expert assessments ¨ testing	¨ methods of object release: quilting, monitoring, training and concealment before the end ¨ methods of object transformation: follow-up work, experiment

The names of these groups of methods, melodiously, are not entirely distant, but it is important to inform the question: “private” for what? So the very “zagalni” - exactly what? The demarcation, which is better for everything, goes from another standpoint.

This subdivision can be achieved both theoretically and empirically from the position of the activity structure.

We view methodology as a concept about the organization of activity. Therefore, scientific research is a cycle of activity, the structural units of which are direct actions. As you know, diya– a unit of activity, the significance of which is the manifestation of a specific mark. The structural units of the operation are related to the objective-objective minds of the reach. One meta, consistent with the idea, can reach different minds; However, other actions can be implemented through various operations. At the same time one and the same operation You can enter at a different place (A.N. Leontyev).

Outcomes from which we see (div. Table 3):

- methods-operations;

- Methods.

Such an approach cannot be taken seriously method What does the Encyclopedic Dictionary give:

– first of all, a method is a way of reaching any goal, solving a specific task – a method of action;

– in other words, a method as a set of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical mastery of activity – a method-operation.

Thus, let us look at the methods of investigation of the offensive group:

Theoretical methods:

– methods – cognitive activities: identification and development of problems, formulation of the problem, generation of hypotheses, etc.;

– methods-operations: analysis, synthesis, alignment, abstraction and concretization, etc.

Empirical methods:

– methods – cognitive activities: observation, monitoring, experiment, etc.;

– methods-operations: caution, vimir, experimentation, testing, etc.

Theoretical methods (methods-operations). Theoretical methods-operations have a wide field of application, both in scientific research and in practical activity.

Theoretical methods - operations are identified (looked at) behind the main rational operations, such as: analysis and synthesis, alignment, abstraction and concretization, formalization, formalization, induction and deduction, ideal Izatsia, analogy, modeling, explicit experiment.

Analysis– this is the process of unfolding the whole part, seeing the surrounding signs and parts of the box, the process and the removal of boxes, processes. Analysis procedures are an integral part of any scientific research and begin to create its first phase, if the investigator moves from an undifferentiated description of the object to the identification of its nature, structure, power and sign.

As a matter of fact, the process can be analyzed from many aspects. A comprehensive analysis of the object allows us to take a closer look at it.

Synthesis- Combination of different elements, sides of an object into a single whole (system). Synthesis is not just a summation, but a meaning creation. By simply consuming objects without the connection system at their core, a chaotic accumulation of other facts is created. Synthesis of the protilegous analysis, with which there are non-destructive connections. Synthesis, as a cognitive operation, appears in various functions of theoretical investigation. Any process of understanding and understanding is based on the unity of the processes of analysis and synthesis. Empirical data, obtained from other research, are synthesized behind their theoretical background. In theoretical scientific knowledge, synthesis appears in the function of interconnection between theories that belong to one subject area, as well as the function of combining competing theories (for example, the synthesis of corpuscular and physical phenomena in izitsi).

Synthesis plays an important role in empirical research.

Analysis and synthesis are closely related to each other. If the pre-investigator's attention to detail before the analysis is more severe, there may be concerns that they will be able to find the place of the details of the phenomenon as a whole. The ever-important synthesis leads to superficiality, to the point where attention is paid to the following details that can be of great importance to understandable phenomena as a whole.

Porivnyannya- This is a cognitive operation that underlies the judgment about the similarity or sublimity of objects. As a result of this leveling, clear and clear characteristics of objects are revealed, their classification, ordering and evaluation are carried out. Equalization means placing one with the other. In this case, substitutes and signs of alignment play an important role, which indicate possible connections between objects.

Leveling has less sense in the totality of similar objects that create class. The alignment of objects in one class or another follows the principles appropriate for this consideration. In this case, objects that can be equated with one sign may not be equated with other signs. The more accurately the signs are assessed, the more accurately the boxes can be leveled. The warehouse part of the leveling is always the analysis, therefore, for any leveling in the boxes, you need to strengthen the corresponding signs of leveling. The scraps of the leveling are due to the installation of singing drains between the boxes, then, naturally, during the time of leveling, vikorism and synthesis occur.

Abstraction- One of the main mental operations, which allows thoughts to be articulated and transformed into an independent object for consideration from all sides, the authorities, or the object in its pure form. Abstraction lies at the basis of the processes of recognition and creation of understanding.

Abstraction lies with the strengthened powers of the object, such as powerful forces and regardless of anything else. Such articulation is only possible on a plane - in abstraction. Thus, the geometric figure of the body itself does not really exist and the body cannot be strengthened. All the time, abstracted thoughts are seen, fixed, for example, behind an armchair, and independently examined by their particular authorities.

One of the main functions of abstraction lies in the vision of the hidden authorities of many objects and in the fixation of these authorities, for example, for further understanding.

Specification- a process that is subject to abstraction, to find the whole, interconnected, richly sided and foldable. The doslednik initially creates various abstractions, and on their basis, the appearance of concretization creates completeness (in Dumkov’s specificity), but it is also clear to other equals knowledge of the specific. Tom dialectics sees in the process of knowledge in the coordinates “abstraction - concretization” two processes of convergence: convergence from the concrete to the abstract and then the process of convergence from the abstract to the new concrete (G. Hegel). The dialectics of theoretical thought lies in the unity of abstraction, the creation of various abstractions and concretization, the flow to the concrete and its creation.

Uzagalnennya- One of the main cognitive cognitive operations that lies in the observed and fixation of stable, invariant powers of objects and their inputs. Uralization allows you to represent the authorities and data of objects regardless of the private and capricious minds of their caution. From a different point of view, the object of a given group, people know, sees and means by the word their new, hidden powers, which can be used instead to understand about this group, the class of objects. The separation of secret authorities from private ones and the identification of them with words allows a short, squeaky-looking person to spit out all the different objects, classify them in a song class, and then, using additional abstraction, operate with concepts without a relentless savagery to close objects. One and the same real object can be included in both the narrow and broad classes, for which the scales of strength are adjusted based on the principle of generic lines. The ordering function applies to the ordered variety of objects and their classification.

Formalization- Representation of the results of thought in precise concepts or affirmations. What about the rozoum operation “of a different order.” Formalization is presented to the intuitive mind. Mathematics and formal logic under formalization understand the representation of place knowledge in the iconic form and formalization of language. Formalization, in order to fully understand the change, will ensure the systematization of knowledge, if its elements are coordinated with each other. Formalization plays an essential role in the development of scientific knowledge, while some intuitive concepts, although they seem clearer to the everyday eye, have little to do with science: the scientific knowledge is often not possible only to decide, but to formulate and pose problems until such time as the structure has been clarified to understand what to do with them. Contemporary science can only be understood in terms of abstract thought, the successor’s understanding, as in a logical form, in appearance, to understand the judgments and philosophies.

In scientific propositions, connections are made between objects, phenomena and their symbols. Scientific principles have one idea: to come out of something else, to develop new ones on the basis of already existing principles. There are two main types of insights: inductive (induction) and deductive (deduction).

Induction- This is a summary of private objects, revealed before the official conclusion, and other facts before the official conclusion.

Deduction- Tse vysnovok from the hidden to the private, from the zagalnyh judges to the private vysnovki.

Idealization- Explicitly constructed statements about objects that do not exist or are not real, but those for which there are prototypes in the real world. p align="justify"> The process of idealization is characterized by the fact that the authorities and representatives, the powerful objects of real activity and the authorities who create the understanding of such signs, which in principle cannot be their reality prototypes Use examples to understand what is the result of idealization, perhaps the mathematical concepts of “point”, “straight line”; in physics - “material point”, “absolutely black body”, “ideal gas”, etc.

About the concept that is the result of idealization, we can say that they have idealized (or ideal) objects. Having created, behind an additional idealization, a concept of this kind about objects, one can then operate with them in terms of reality as real objects and as abstract schemes of real processes that serve for deeper understanding. For whom all sensory idealization is closely related to modeling.

Analogy,modeling. Analogy is a Rosoumian operation, once known, taken away from the sight of any one object (model), transferred to another, smaller or less accessible for modification, smaller initial object, which is called a prototype, an original. The possibility of transferring information by analogy from a model to a prototype is revealed. This is the essence of one of the special methods of the theoretical level - modeling (incentive and follow-up of models). The difference between analogy and modeling is that, since analogy is one of the rational operations, then modeling can be seen in various cases as both a rational operation and an independent method - method-action.

Model– an auxiliary object, selection or transformation of cognitive information, which provides new information about the main object. The forms of modeling are different and lie in the types of models and the spheres of their formation. Behind the nature of the models one can see object and sign (information) modeling.

Subject modeling is carried out on a model that represents the geometric, physical, dynamic, and functional authority of the modeling object - to the original; In addition, analogue modeling, if the behavior of the original model is described by common mathematical relationships, for example, by common differential equations. At iconic model Schemes, armchairs, formulas, etc. serve as models. The most important type of such modeling is mathematical modeling(Report below).

Modeling will now be combined with other methods of investigation, especially closely related to experiment. The study of any phenomenon from its model is a special type of experiment - model experiment, differs from the traditional experiment in that the learning process involves the “intermediate channel” – the model, which is also at the same time the object of experimental investigation, which replaces the original.

Let us distinguish the type of modeling obvious experiment. In such an experiment, the follower of thoughts creates ideal objects, combining them one by one within the framework of a simple dynamic model, having the thoughts of that era, and those situations that could be in the same place in a real experiment. In this case, ideal models and objects help to reveal “in a clear view” the most important, important connections and issues, ideas about how to handle possible situations, and all unnecessary options.

Modeling also serves as a way to construct something new that has not previously been used in practice. The researcher, having studied the characteristic features of real processes and their trends, studies on the basis of the clear idea of their new understanding, to work on their obvious reconstruction, so that he models the necessary state of the system, which There is (so, just like a human being and a creature, there will be its own activity, activity is based on the “model of the necessary future” - according to N. A. Bernstein). In this case, model-hypotheses are created that reveal the mechanisms of the connection between the components of the investigated substance, which are verified in practice. In this case, intelligent modeling has become widespread in the educational and human sciences - in economics, pedagogy, etc., as different authors suggest different models of firms, industries, lighting systems, etc.

The order from the operations of logical thinking to theoretical methods-operations can be carried out in the same way (perhaps mentally) uyava as a mental process of the creation of new manifestations and images with its specific forms of fantasy (the creation of implausible, paradoxical images and understand) and Mrii(like the creation of images of a bajan).

Theoretical methods (methods – cognitive activities). By the extra-philosophical, extra-scientific method of knowledge dialectics- The logic of local creative thinking is real, which reflects the objective dialectics of activity itself. The basis of dialectics, as a method of scientific knowledge, is the similarity from the abstract to the concrete (G. Hegel) - from the hidden and poor forms to the dismembered and richer elements, to a system to understand what allows us to grasp the subject of its everyday characteristics. In dialectics, all problems are of a historical nature, following the development of the object and the strategic platform of knowledge. Let's face it, dialectics is oriented towards the knowledge of discovery and methods of perfect cleaning.

Laws of dialectics: the transition of numerous changes in yasna, the continuity and the struggle of durations and so on; analysis of two dialectical categories: historical and logical, obvious and essential, obscure (zagalne) and singular and otherwise. as invisible components of any well-produced scientific investigation.

Scientific theories,verified by practice: whether such a theory, in essence, serves the function of the method in generating new theories or introducing it into other areas of scientific knowledge, as well as the function of the method, which means change and consistency experimental activity of the investigator. Therefore, the difference between scientific theory, both the form of scientific knowledge and the method of knowledge, is always of a functional nature: formed as a theoretical result of previous research, the method stands as the exit point and mind of future research.

Finished- The method is a theoretical (logical) action in which the truth of any thought is grounded with the help of other thoughts. Any proof consists of three parts: thesis, arguments (arguments) and demonstration. There are direct and indirect differences in the method of evidence, the form of inference - inductive and deductive. Rules of evidence:

1. The thesis and arguments may be clear and precisely meaningful.

2. The thesis may be deprived of the same amount of proof.

3. Thesis is not guilty of taking revenge on itself.

4. Evidence that leads to the confirmation of the thesis must itself be true, as it does not give rise to doubt, it is not necessary to supervise one another and be a sufficient basis for this thesis.

5. The proof may be remembered.

It is important to pay attention to the totality of methods of scientific knowledge method of analysis of knowledge systems(Div., For example,). Any scientific system of knowledge has a distinct independence in relation to the subject area that is represented. In addition, knowledge in such systems is expressed through the use of language, the power of which is poured into the formation of knowledge systems to the objects that are involved - for example, as I try to get the blamed psychological, sociological, pedagogical concept translated into, perhaps, English English, German, French language – Will it definitely be accepted and understood in England, Germany and France? Further, we need to understand that such systems convey both logical systematization and the logical organization of the integration of movable units for the expression of knowledge. And, you will find that this system of knowledge does not absorb all the space of the object that is being studied. She always removes the description and explanation of the song, the historically specific part of such a place.

The method of analyzing scientific knowledge systems plays an important role in empirical and theoretical research studies: when choosing an output theory, a hypothesis for a particular problem; when distinguishing between empirical and theoretical knowledge, between empirical and theoretical solutions to a scientific problem; under conditional equivalence and priority of stagnation of these and other mathematical apparatuses in different theories that lie within the same subject area; In order to expand the possibilities of previously formulated theories, concepts, principles, etc. on new subject galusi; development of new possibilities of practical stagnation of knowledge systems; with simplified and clarified knowledge systems for learning, popularization; To use other systems, know this.

– deductive method(Synonym - axiomatic method) - a method of scientific theory, in which it is based on certain conclusions axiom(Synonym - postulate), including other provisions of this theory ( theorems) can be deduced in a logical way with seemingly proof. Pobudov's theories based on the axiomatic method are called deductive. All concepts of the deductive theory, in addition to the fixed number of cobs (such cob concepts in geometry, for example: point, straight line, plane) are introduced with additional meaning, which express them through the introduction or derivation of the concept. A classic example of deductive theory is Euclidian geometry. The deductive method will be theories from mathematics, mathematical logic, theoretical physics;

- another method in literature, without losing its name, but it is insanely clear that in all other sciences, except for overexposed substances, theories will follow the method, which is called inductive-deductive: an empirical basis will now accumulate, on the basis of which there will be theoretical induction (induction), which may emerge in a few years - for example, empirical laws and theoretical laws - and then And the removal of the corner can be extended to all objects and objects that are covered with it. theory (deduction) – div. Small 6 ta Small. 10. The inductive-deductive method is used in most theories in the sciences about nature, marriage and people: physics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, psychology, pedagogy, etc.

Other theoretical methods of investigation (in sensory methods - cognitive actions): identification and growth of losses, problem formulation, inducing hypotheses, etc. Even before planning scientific research, we look at the specifics of the time-hour structure of pre-investigation activity - the daily phases, stages and stages of scientific research.

Empirical methods (methods-operations).

Vivcheniya literature,documents and results of activities. The work with scientific literature will be looked at more closely, since it is not just an investigative method, but also a fundamental procedural component of any scientific work.

In addition to the factual material for investigation, there is also a variety of documentation: archival materials in historical investigations; documentation of enterprises, organization and installations in economic, sociological, pedagogical and other research, etc. The development of activity results plays an important role in pedagogy, especially regarding the problems of professional training of scientists and students; in psychology, pedagogy and sociology; and, for example, in archeology, at the time of excavation, the analysis of the results of human activity: the surplus of clothes, dishes, living things, etc. allows you to renew your way of living in a different era.

Be careful- In principle, the most informative method of investigation. This is a single method that allows you to study all aspects of events and processes that are involved, accessible to a specialist - both directly and with the help of various devices.

It is important for the purposes that are re-examined in the process of caution, which may remain scientific or non-scientific. Purposeful and organized perception of objects and manifestations of the outer world, associated with the latest scientific problems and disappearances, commonly called scientifically cautious. Sciences are careful to transmit detailed information for further theoretical understanding and discussion, for the confirmation and formulation of any hypothesis, etc.

Scientific caution arises from the following procedures:

Significance of caution (in the future, from the method?);

choice of object, process, situation (what to watch out for?);

Choose a method and frequency to be careful (how to be careful?);

Selecting methods for registering an object that is being guarded against (how to record stolen information?);

Processing and interpretation of the captured information (what is the result?) – Div, for example, .

Situations are divided into:

Natural and artificial;

Kerovani and not kerovani subject to caution;

Spontaneous and organized;

Standard and non-standard;

Normal and extreme, etc.

In addition, it is important to organize precautions regarding the possibility of detection and admission, field and laboratory, and depending on the nature of fixation – ascertaining, evaluating and mixing. For the method of removing information, the guards are divided into direct and instrumental. Behind the obligation of burying objects that are involved, there are strict and selective precautions; by frequency – steady, periodic and disposable. A particular type of caution is self-caution, which is widely used, for example, in psychology.

Caution is necessary for scientific knowledge, since without it science would not be able to recognize the output information, there would be a lot of scientific facts and empirical data, but it would also be impossible to obtain theoretical, casual knowledge.

However, caution as a method of learning may result in a low number of shortcomings. The characteristics of the investigator, his interests, his findings, and his psychological state can significantly influence the results of caution. It is even more difficult to achieve objective results of monitoring in these cases, if the follower of the focus is on obtaining the same result, on confirming the original hypothesis.

To obtain objective results, it is necessary to be careful Intersubjectivity then these warnings are (and/or may be) canceled and recorded, if possible, by other guards.

Replacing direct guarding with devices inevitably expands the possibilities of guarding, and also includes subjectivity; The assessment and interpretation of such indirect guarding depends on the subject, and therefore the subjective input of the investigator can still take place.

Caution is most often accompanied by another empirical method - vimir

Vimiryuvannya. Vicorism is practiced everywhere, in every human activity. So, it is practical for people to spend dozens of times doing skin rejuvenation, looking at the anniversary. The meaning of vimir is as follows: “Vimiryuvannya is a cognitive process that occurs in the equalization... given value with various meanings taken as a symbol of equalization” (div., for example,).

In addition, death is based on the empirical method (operational method) of scientific research.

You can see the song structure of the vimiru, which includes the following elements:

1) the subject that knows that the world operates for purely educational purposes;

2) help the world Among them, they can both adapt tools constructed by humans and objects and processes given by nature;

3) object of dimming, then vimiryuvan magnitude or power, to the extent that the equalization procedure becomes stagnant;

4) hid the vimiru method, which is a set of practical actions, operations that are completed using additional numerical devices, and also includes logical and calculating procedures;

5) vimi result, which is a named number, which is expressed by additional names or signs.

The epistemological basis of the vibrancy method is inextricably linked with scientific understanding of the clear and complex characteristics of the object that is undergoing (phenomenon). If you want to use this method, more characteristics are recorded, but the characteristics are inseparable from

Although scientific activity is specific, it stagnates in the practices of mercifulness, which are used by people in other spheres of activity, in everyday life. For any type of human activity, the following methods are characteristic: induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, abstraction and abstraction, idealization, analogy, description, clarity, transfer, hypothesis, confirmation, expression, etc.

The main methods of removing empirical knowledge from science are caution and experimentation.

Caution - this is a method of removing empirical knowledge, in case of any confusion - do not introduce caution in case of any changes to the reality that is undergoing.

It is important to say that empirical research cannot begin without a strong theoretical approach. I would like to say that facts are the truth of the past, about the common reality, it is impossible without theoretical motives. I.P. Pavlov wrote from his report this way: “... at any moment it is necessary to make secret statements about the subject, so that the facts can be kept in mind...”

The work of science is not limited to collecting factual material.

Reducing the knowledge of science to the collection of facts means, as Poincaré said, “the true nature of science is completely unreasonable.” He wrote: “It is the responsibility of everyone to organize facts. Science is formed from facts, like a day from a goal. And the accumulation of facts alone does not form science, just as a pile of stones does not form a house.”

Scientific theories do not stand as direct interpretations of empirical facts. As A. Einstein wrote, “no logical path is aware of the basic principles of theory.” Theories arise from the complex interaction between theoretical thought and empire, from the current development of theoretical problems, from the process of interaction between science and culture in general.

As a result of these theories, different ways of theoretical thinking have become increasingly stagnant. Thus, Galileo began to widely emphasize obvious experiments and practical theories. In the course of a clear experiment, the theorist develops possible options for the behavior of the idealized objects that he separates. A mathematical experiment is a current type of explicit experiment, in which the results of the variation of minds in a mathematical model can be tested on computers.

When characterizing scientific activity, it is important to note that in its course, sometimes it turns to philosophy.

The development of philosophy is especially relevant at a turning point in the development of science. Great scientific achievements were associated with philosophical discoveries. Philosophy strives for an effective description, explanation, and understanding of the reality studied by science.

The important features of scientific knowledge are reflected in the concept of “style of scientific thought.” M. Bourne wrote this: “... I think that there are some hidden trends in thought that are changing quite a lot and creating great philosophical periods with their characteristic ideas in all spheres of human activity , including in science. Pauli recently sheets before I lived in the expression "styles": styles of thought are styles not only in mysticism, but also in science. Adopting this term, I affirm that there are styles in physical theory, and this very situation gives its own kind steadfastness and principles."

The famous chemist and philosopher M. Polanyi showed, for example, the 50s of the twentieth century, that when you change your mind, where things go in the work, it is impossible to completely verbalize, then. learn from the language. Polani wrote: “The great amount of time in which students of chemistry, biology and medicine devote themselves to practical pursuits, bear witness to the important role that in these disciplines the transfer of practical knowledge plays from teacher to student. what has been said can be expanded upon in The very center of science is aware of the aspirations of practical knowledge that are impossible to convey through formulas.”

Polanyi called knowledge of this type implicit. This knowledge is conveyed through the appearance of texts, and through the direct demonstration of images.

Speaking about the features of scientific knowledge, it is important to note that the most important thing is the science of science.

Galileo confirmed that the book of Nature was written by my mathematics. The development of physics completely confirms the words of Galileo. In other sciences, the process of mathematization is even more active. Mathematics is part of the fabric of theoretical matters in all sciences.

The progress of scientific knowledge is inherently due to the development of techniques that are being developed by science. The discovery of the telescope by Galileo, and then the creation of telescopes and radio telescopes largely meant the development of astronomy. The development of microscopes, especially electronic ones, played an important role in the development of biology. Without the ability to understand, like synchrophasotrons, the intractable development of the daily physics of elementary particles. The use of computers revolutionizes the development of science.

The methods used in different sciences are not the same.

The importance of methods and features that are common in various sciences is determined by the specificity of subject areas and the development of science. This leads to a gradual interpenetration of methods and features of different sciences. The apparatus of mathematics becomes more complex. According to the words of Yu. Wiener, “the incomparable effectiveness of mathematics” is important in all sciences. However, there is hardly any trace of the universalization of methods and techniques that are being developed in various sciences.

Methods developed in one scientific field can be effectively applied in a whole other field.

One of the new innovations in science is the transfer of methods and approaches from one scientific field to another. For example, what academician V.I. Vernadsky wrote about L. Pasteur, bearing in mind his work on the problem of spontaneous generation: “Pasteur... acted like a chemist like Volodiv using an experimental method, which has increased to a new knowledge for a new generation methods and the robotic techniques that those naturalists learned from her that they had not learned before.”

Speaking about the specifics of various sciences, we can call the peculiarities of philosophical knowledge. In general, philosophy has ceased to be a science. Since in the classical philosophical tradition philosophy was interpreted as a special science, contemporary thinkers often develop philosophical impulses that are sharply intertwined with science (this relates, for example, to existentialism). ists, neo-positivists). At the same time, within the framework of philosophy there will always be research that can lay claim to the status of science. M. Born brings up such “research on the hidden structure of the world and our methods of penetration into this structure.”

These methods are the most important warehouse components of the logical structure of the organization of activities. Therefore, there is no need to create a great branch of methodology, which is concerned with the organization of activity.
It should be noted that publications that systematically reveal the features and methods of action are practically impossible. Material about them is scattered from various jerels. Therefore, we wanted to take a closer look at the system and try out the features and methods of scientific research in the singing system. In addition, most of the methods lie not only in science, but also in practical activities, and even in basic activities.
Koshty scientific research (zasobi piznannya). During the development of science, the methods of knowledge are expanded and perfected: material, mathematical, logical, logical. In addition, in the remaining hours before them, it may be necessary to add information services as a special class. All functions of knowledge are specially created functions. Whose senses, material, informational, mathematical, logical, physical, cognitive abilities have strong power: they are designed, created, divided, arranged for these and other cognitive purposes iley.
Material means of knowledge - this is what we need first to adapt for scientific research. In the history of the guilt of material methods of knowledge, the formation of empirical methods of investigation - observation, experiment, experiment - is associated.
These points are directly focused on the objects that are being studied, and they have a major role to play in the empirical revision of hypotheses and other results of scientific research, in the creation of new objects and facts. Vikoristannya of material methods of knowledge in science - microscope, telescope, synchrophasotron, satellites of the Earth, etc. - gives a deep infusion to the formation of the conceptual apparatus of the sciences, to the methods of describing the objects that are studied, to the methods of development and manifestation, to the development of formalization, idealization and arguments.
Information means of knowledge. The mass development of computing technology, information technology, and telecommunication technologies is radically transforming scientific research activities in the rich fields of science, working with them in the ways of scientific knowledge. In addition, in the last decade, computing technology has been widely used to automate experiments in physics, biology, engineering sciences, etc., which allows hundreds, thousands of times to complete research kі procedures and speed up the hour of data processing. In addition, information technology makes it possible to significantly simplify the processing of statistical data in almost all fields of science. And the use of satellite navigation systems often improves the accuracy of surveys in geodesy, cartography, etc.
Mathematical knowledge. The development of mathematical knowledge gives an ever greater influx into the development of everyday science, and it penetrates into the humanities and general sciences.
Mathematics, being a science about large volumes and spacious forms, abstracted from their specific place, has broken down and established the specific features of the volcanic form in place and formulated the rules for viewing the form as an independent object At the sight of numbers, multipliers, what I ask will make it easier and speed up the process knowledge allows us to better identify connections between objects, such as abstracted form, to identify output positions, to ensure the accuracy and consistency of judgments. Mathematical methods make it possible to see not only the abstracted large numbers and spacious forms, but also the logically possible ones that can be derived according to logical rules from previously known parts and forms.
With the influx of mathematical skills, knowledge recognizes the essential changes in the theoretical apparatus of descriptive sciences. Mathematical methods make it possible to systematize empirical data, identify and formulate numerous relationships and patterns. Mathematical methods are also used as special forms of idealization and analogies (mathematical modeling).
Logical features of knowledge. Any investigator who has ever investigated the following logical conclusions:
- what logical reasons should be satisfied with the world, which allows objective-reference systems to work; How can we control the nature of these worlds?
- What logical reasons can be satisfied with the description of empirically guarded characteristics?
- how is it logical to analyze the output systems of scientific knowledge, how do some knowledge systems relate to other knowledge systems (for example, in sociology and related psychology)?
- What is a scientific theory that allows us to give scientific explanations, transfers, etc.?
The addition of logical features in the process of inducing evidence and evidence allows the investigator to strengthen the control of arguments from intuitively and uncritically accepted, untruths from the true, misdirection from contradiction.
Movni zasobi pіznanya. It is important for us to understand, clearly, the rules in order to understand the importance (definition). Every scientific researcher has to clarify the introduced concepts, symbols and signs, and learn new concepts and signs. The meanings are always connected with mine as a separate knowledge and expression of knowledge.
The rules of research are both natural and artificial, with the help of which the investigator will develop his own evidence and evidence, formulate hypotheses, remove foundations, etc., and be the final point of cognitive activities. Knowing them also contributes to the effectiveness of the development of personal knowledge in scientific research.
The methods of scientific knowledge (investigation methods) are in charge of the methods of knowledge.
Methods of scientific research. The primary, sometimes primary role of any scientific robot is played by established research methods.
Methods of investigation are divided into empirical (empirical - literally - understood in the eyes of sensitive organs) and theoretical (div. Table 3).
Several methods of tracing traces indicate such a situation. In the literature of epistemology and methodology, there is a growing trend of scientific methods, scientific methods, and theoretical methods. So, the dialectical method, the theory (if it appears in the function of the method - below), the revealed and the most pronounced differences, the emergence of hypotheses, etc. It is customary to call, without explaining why (let’s face it, the authors of such explanations could not be found in the literature) methods of knowledge. And such methods as analysis and synthesis, alignment, abstraction and concretization are also the main rational operations - methods of theoretical investigation.
A similar field is in place with empirical surveillance methods. So, V.I. Zagvyazinsky divides empirical investigation methods into two groups:
1. Robotic, private methods. These include: study of literature, documents and results of activities; caution; opituvannya (asleep and write); method of expert assessments; Testing.
2. Complex, advanced methods that will be based on one or more other methods: quilting; monitoring; marriage and marriage until the end; before the work; experiment.

The names of these groups of methods, perhaps, are not entirely clear, but it is important to inform the question: “private” for what? So the very “zagalni” - exactly what? The demarcation, which is better for everything, goes from another standpoint.
This subdivision can be achieved both theoretically and empirically from the position of the activity structure.
We view methodology as a concept about the organization of activity. Therefore, scientific research is a cycle of activity, the structural units of which are direct actions. Apparently, action is a unit of activity, the main feature of which is the manifestation of a specific mark. The structural units of the operation are related to the objective-objective minds of the reach. One meta, consistent with the idea, can reach different minds; However, other actions can be implemented through various operations. At the same time, one and the same operation can be included in different operations (A.N. Leontyev).
Outcomes from which we see (div. Table 3):
- methods-operations;
- methods.
This approach is incompatible with the original method, which gives:
- first of all, a method is a way of reaching any goal, solving a specific task - a method of action;
- in other words, a method as a combination of techniques and operations of practical and theoretical mastery of activity - a method-operation.
Thus, let us look at the methods of investigation of the offensive group:
Theoretical methods:
- methods - cognitive activities: identification and development of problems, formulation of the problem, generation of hypotheses, etc.;
- methods-operations: analysis, synthesis, alignment, abstraction and concretization, etc.
Empirical methods:
- methods – cognitive activities: observation, monitoring, experiment, etc.;
- methods-operations: caution, vimir, experimentation, testing, etc.
Theoretical methods (methods-operations). Theoretical methods-operations have a wide field of application, both in scientific research and in practical activity.
Theoretical methods - operations are identified (looked at) behind the main rational operations, such as: analysis and synthesis, leveling, abstraction and concretization, formalization, formalization, induction and deduction, ideal Izatsia, analogy, modeling, explicit experiment.
Analysis is the process of dismantling and investigating the whole part, seeing the surrounding signs and components of the case, the process and the identification of the cases, processes. Analysis procedures are an integral part of any scientific research and begin to create its first phase, if the investigator moves from an undifferentiated description of the object to the identification of its nature, structure, power and sign.
As a matter of fact, the process can be analyzed from many aspects. A comprehensive analysis of the object allows us to take a closer look at it.
Synthesis is the combination of different elements, aspects of an object into a single whole (system). Synthesis is not just a summation, but a meaning creation. By simply consuming objects without the connection system at their core, a chaotic accumulation of other facts is created. Synthesis of the protilegous analysis, with which there are non-destructive connections. Synthesis, as a cognitive operation, appears in various functions of theoretical investigation. Any process of understanding and understanding is based on the unity of the processes of analysis and synthesis. Empirical data, obtained from other research, are synthesized behind their theoretical background. In theoretical scientific knowledge, synthesis appears in the function of interconnection between theories that belong to one subject area, as well as the function of combining competing theories (for example, the synthesis of corpuscular and physical phenomena in izitsi).
Synthesis plays an important role in empirical research.
Analysis and synthesis are closely related to each other. If the pre-investigator's attention to detail before the analysis is more severe, there may be concerns that they will be able to find the place of the details of the phenomenon as a whole. The ever-important synthesis leads to superficiality, to the point where attention is paid to the following details that can be of great importance to understandable phenomena as a whole.
Verification is a cognitive operation that underlies judgments about the similarity or difference of objects. As a result of this leveling, clear and clear characteristics of objects are revealed, their classification, ordering and evaluation are carried out. Equalization means placing one with the other. In this case, substitutes and signs of alignment play an important role, which indicate possible connections between objects.
Leveling has less sense in the totality of similar objects that create class. The alignment of objects in one class or another follows the principles appropriate for this consideration. In this case, objects that can be equated with one sign may not be equated with other signs. The more accurately the signs are assessed, the more accurately the boxes can be leveled. The warehouse part of the leveling is always the analysis, therefore, for any leveling in the boxes, you need to strengthen the corresponding signs of leveling. The scraps of the leveling are due to the installation of liquid drains between the drawers, then, naturally, the leveling becomes vikorist and synthesis.
Abstraction is one of the main rational operations, which allows ideas to be articulated and transformed into an independent object for consideration from all sides, the authorities, or the object in its pure form. Abstraction lies at the basis of the processes of recognition and creation of understanding.
Abstraction lies with the strengthened powers of the object, such as powerful forces and regardless of anything else. Such articulation is only possible on a plane - in abstraction. Thus, the geometric figure of the body itself does not really exist and the body cannot be strengthened. All the time, abstracted thoughts are seen, fixed, for example, behind a chair, and independently examined by their particular authorities.
One of the main functions of abstraction lies in the vision of the hidden authorities of many objects and in the fixation of these authorities, for example, for further understanding.
Concretization is a process preceded by abstraction, in order to find the whole, interconnected, richly sided and foldable. The doslednik initially creates various abstractions, and on their basis, the appearance of concretization creates completeness (in Dumkov’s specificity), but it is also clear to other equals knowledge of the specific. Therefore, dialectics sees in the process of knowledge in the coordinates “abstraction – concretization” two processes of convergence: convergence from the concrete to the abstract and then the process of convergence from the abstract to the new concrete (G. Hegel). The dialectics of theoretical thought lies in the unity of abstraction, the creation of various abstractions and concretization, the flow to the concrete and its creation.
Registration is one of the main cognitive cognitive operations that lies in the vision and fixation of stable, invariant powers of objects and their inputs. Uralization allows you to represent the authorities and data of objects regardless of the private and capricious minds of their caution. From a different point of view, the object of a given group, people know, sees and means by the word their new, hidden powers, which can be used instead to understand about this group, the class of objects. The separation of secret authorities from private ones and the identification of them with words allows a short, squeaky-looking person to spit out all the different objects, classify them in a song class, and then, using additional abstraction, operate with concepts without a relentless savagery to close objects. One and the same real object can be included in both the narrow and broad classes, for which the scales of strength are adjusted based on the principle of generic lines. The ordering function applies to the ordered variety of objects and their classification.
Formalization is the presentation of the results of thought in precise concepts and affirmations. What about the rozoum operation “of a different order.” Formalization is presented to the intuitive mind. Mathematics and formal logic under formalization understand the representation of place knowledge in the iconic form and formalization of language. Formalization, in order to fully understand the change, will ensure the systematization of knowledge, if its elements are coordinated with each other. Formalization plays an essential role in the development of scientific knowledge, while some intuitive concepts, although they seem clearer to the everyday eye, have little to do with science: the scientific knowledge is often not possible only to decide, but to formulate and pose problems until such time as the structure has been clarified to understand what to do with them. Contemporary science can only be understood in terms of abstract thought, the successor’s understanding, as in a logical form, in appearance, to understand the judgments and philosophies.
In scientific propositions, connections are established between objects, phenomena and between their symbols. Scientific principles have one idea: to come out of something else, to develop new ones on the basis of already existing principles. There are two main types of insights: inductive (induction) and deductive (deduction).
Induction is the result of findings from private objects, revelations before the final conclusion, from other facts before the official conclusion.
Deduction - from the hidden to the private, from the hidden judgments to the next ones.
Idealization is a clearly constructed statement about objects that do not exist or are not real in reality, other than those for which prototypes exist in the real world. p align="justify"> The process of idealization is characterized by the fact that the authorities and representatives, the powerful objects of real activity and the authorities who create the understanding of such signs, which in principle cannot be their reality prototypes Use examples to understand what is the result of idealization, perhaps the mathematical concepts of “point”, “straight line”; in physics - “material point”, “absolutely black body”, “ideal gas”, etc.
About the concept that is the result of idealization, we can say that they have idealized (or ideal) objects. Having created, behind an additional idealization, a concept of this kind about objects, one can then operate with them in terms of reality as real objects and as abstract schemes of real processes that serve for deeper understanding. For whom all sensory idealization is closely related to modeling.
Analogy, modeling. Analogy is a Rosoumian operation, once known, taken from one object (model), transferred to another, smaller or less accessible for modification, smaller initial object, which is called a prototype, an original. The possibility of transferring information by analogy from a model to a prototype is revealed. This is the essence of one of the special methods of the theoretical level - modeling (improvement and investigation of models). The difference between analogy and modeling is that, since analogy is one of the rational operations, then modeling can be seen in various cases as both a rational operation and an independent method - method-action.
A model is an additional object that combines and transforms cognitive information, which provides new information about the main object. The forms of modeling are different and lie in the types of models and the spheres of their formation. Behind the nature of the models one can see object and sign (information) modeling.
Subject modeling is carried out on a model that represents the geometric, physical, dynamic, and functional power of the modeling object - the original; In addition - analogue modeling, if the behavior of the original model is described by common mathematical relationships, for example, by common differential equations. With symbolic modeling, models include diagrams, chairs, formulas, etc. The most important type of such modeling is mathematical modeling (see the report below).
Modeling will now be combined with other methods of investigation, especially closely related to experiment. The study of any phenomenon from its model is a special type of experiment - a model experiment, which is a type of basic experiment in that the process of cognition includes the “groin line” - a model that is both individual and an object experiment immental investigation that replaces the original .
Let us distinguish the type of modeling as a clear experiment. In such an experiment, the follower of thoughts creates ideal objects, combining them one by one within the framework of a simple dynamic model, having the thoughts of that era, and those situations that could be in the same place in a real experiment. In this case, ideal models and objects help to reveal “in a clear view” the most important, important connections and issues, ideas about how to handle possible situations, and all unnecessary options.
Modeling also serves as a way to construct something new that has not previously been used in practice. The researcher, having studied the characteristic features of real processes and their trends, studies on the basis of the clear idea of their new understanding, to work on their obvious reconstruction, so that he models the necessary state of the system, which There is (so, just like a human being and a creature, there will be its own activity, activity is based on the “model of the necessary future” - according to N. A. Bernstein). In this case, model-hypotheses are created that reveal the mechanisms of the connection between the components of the investigated substance, which are verified in practice. In this case, intelligent modeling has become widespread in the educational and human sciences - in economics, pedagogy, etc., as different authors suggest different models of firms, industries, lighting systems, etc.
The order from the operations of logical thought to theoretical methods-operations can also (possibly mentally) be considered as a rational process of the creation of new manifestations and images with specific forms of fantasy (the creation of implausible, paradoxical images in the same understand) and mrii (as the creation of images of the god).
Theoretical methods (methods – cognitive activities). By the extra-philosophical, extra-scientific method, knowledge and dialectics are the real logic of the substitutive creative mind, which reflects the objective dialectics of activity itself. The basis of dialectics, as a method of scientific knowledge, is the similarity from the abstract to the concrete (G. Hegel) - from the hidden and poor forms to the dismembered and rich elements, to the system of understanding what allows one to touch an object with its everyday characteristics. In dialectics, all problems are of a historical nature, following the development of the object and the strategic platform of knowledge. Let's face it, dialectics is oriented towards the knowledge of discovery and methods of perfect cleaning.
Laws of dialectics: the transition of numerous changes in the clear, unity and the struggle of durations and so on; analysis of two dialectical categories: historical and logical, obvious and essential, obscure (zagalne) and singular and otherwise. as invisible components of any well-produced scientific investigation.
Scientific theories, verified by practice: whether such a theory, in essence, serves the function of the method in generating new theories from it or in other areas of scientific knowledge, as well as the function of the method, which is important and the place and consistency of the experimental activities of the investigator. Therefore, the difference between scientific theory, both the form of scientific knowledge and the method of knowledge, is always of a functional nature: formed as a theoretical result of previous research, the method stands as the exit point and mind of future research.
Proof - a method - is a theoretical (logical) action, in the process of which the truth of any thought is based on the support of other thoughts. Any proof consists of three parts: thesis, arguments (arguments) and demonstration. There are direct and indirect variations in the method of conducting proof, and inductive and deductive variations in the form of proof. Rules of evidence:
1. The thesis and arguments may be clear and precisely meaningful.
2. The thesis may be deprived of the same amount of proof.
3. Thesis is not guilty of taking revenge on itself.
4. Evidence that leads to the confirmation of the thesis must itself be true, as it does not give rise to doubt, it is not necessary to supervise one another and be a sufficient basis for this thesis.
5. The proof may be remembered.
In addition to the methods of scientific knowledge, it is important to follow the method of analyzing knowledge systems (div., for example,). Any scientific system of knowledge has a distinct independence in relation to the subject area that is represented. In addition, knowledge in such systems is expressed through the use of language, the power of which is poured into the formation of knowledge systems to the objects that are involved - for example, as I try to get the blamed psychological, sociological, pedagogical concept translated into, perhaps, English English, German, French language - Will it definitely be accepted and understood in England, Germany and France? Further, we need to understand that such systems convey both logical systematization and the logical organization of the integration of movable units for the expression of knowledge. And, you will find that this system of knowledge does not absorb all the space of the object that is being studied. She always removes the description and explanation of the song, the historically specific part of such a place.
The method of analyzing scientific knowledge systems plays an important role in empirical and theoretical research studies: when choosing an output theory, a hypothesis for a particular problem; when distinguishing between empirical and theoretical knowledge, between empirical and theoretical solutions to a scientific problem; under conditional equivalence and priority of stagnation of these and other mathematical apparatuses in different theories that lie within the same subject area; In order to expand the possibilities of previously formulated theories, concepts, principles, etc. on new subject galusi; development of new possibilities of practical stagnation of knowledge systems; with simplified and clarified knowledge systems for learning, popularization; To use other systems, know this.
Further, before theoretical methods there are two methods based on scientific theories:
- Deductive method (synonym - axiomatic method) - a method of a scientific theory, in which it is based on certain axioms (synonym - postulates), from which the provisions of this theory (theorems) are derived from This is a logical path for further proof. Pobudov's theories based on the axiomatic method are called deductive. All concepts of the deductive theory, in addition to the fixed number of cobs (such cob concepts in geometry, for example: point, straight line, plane) are introduced with additional meaning, which express them through the introduction or derivation of the concept. A classic example of deductive theory is Euclidian geometry. The deductive method will be theories from mathematics, mathematical logic, theoretical physics;
- another method in literature, without losing its name, but it is insanely clear, the fragments of all other sciences, in addition to over-reinsurance, theories will be based on a method called inductive-deductive: an empirical basis will initially accumulate, on the basis of which will be theoretical induction (induction), which can be combined into a number of principles - for example, empirical laws and theoretical laws - and then these restrictions can be extended to all objects and phenomena that are subject to this theory Iyeyu (deduction) - div. 6 ta Small. 10. The inductive-deductive method is used in most theories in the sciences about nature, marriage and people: physics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, psychology, pedagogy, etc.
Other theoretical methods of investigation (in case of sensory methods - cognitive actions): identification and growth of problems, problem formulation, hypotheses, etc. scientific research.
Empirical methods (methods-operations).
Research of literature, documents and results of activities. The work with scientific literature will be looked at more closely, since it is not just an investigative method, but also a fundamental procedural component of any scientific work.
In addition to the factual material for investigation, there is also a variety of documentation: archival materials in historical investigations; documentation of enterprises, organization and installations in economic, sociological, pedagogical and other research, etc. The assessment of the results of activities plays an important role in pedagogy, especially in relation to the problems of the profession noi training of scientists and students; in psychology, pedagogy and sociology; and, for example, in archaeology, during excavations, the analysis of the results of people’s activities: for surplus clothes, dishes, living things, etc., allows one to renew the way of their life in a different era.
Caution - the principle has the most informative method of investigation. This is a single method that allows you to study all aspects of phenomena and processes that are involved, accessible to the specialist - both directly and with the help of various devices.
It is important for the purposes that are re-examined in the process of caution, which may remain scientific or non-scientific. The purposeful and organized perception of objects and manifestations of the external world, associated with the latest scientific problems and problems, is usually called scientific caution. Sciences are careful to transmit detailed information for further theoretical understanding and discussion, for the confirmation and formulation of any hypothesis, etc.
Scientific caution arises from the following procedures:
- importance of caution (is it possible?);
- Select an object, process, situation (what should you watch out for?);
- choose the method and frequency with caution (how to be careful?);
- selecting methods for registering an object that is being guarded against (how to record captured information?);
- processing and interpretation of the captured information (what is the result?) - Div., For example, .
Situations are divided into:
- natural and artificial;
- ceramic and non-keroved subject to caution;
- spontaneous and organized;
- standard and non-standard;
- normal and extreme.
In addition, due to the importance of organizing the precautions, they can be confirmed by admission, field and laboratory, and due to the nature of fixation – ascertaining, assessing and mixing. For the method of removing information, the guards are divided into direct and instrumental. Behind the obligation of burying objects that are involved, there are strict and selective precautions; by frequency - steady, periodic and disposable. A particular type of caution is self-caution, which is widely used, for example, in psychology.
Caution is necessary for scientific knowledge, since without it science would not be able to recognize the output information, there would be a lot of scientific facts and empirical data, but it would also be impossible to obtain theoretical, casual knowledge.
However, caution as a method of learning may result in a low number of shortcomings. The characteristics of the investigator, his interests, his findings, and his psychological state can significantly influence the results of caution. It is even more difficult to achieve objective results of monitoring in these cases, if the follower of the focus is on obtaining the same result, on confirming the original hypothesis.
In order to remove the objective results of caution, it is necessary to achieve maximum intersubjectivity, so that these warnings are (and/or can) be removed and recorded, if possible, by other guards.
Replacing direct guarding with devices inevitably expands the possibilities of guarding, and also includes subjectivity; The assessment and interpretation of such indirect guarding depends on the subject, and therefore the subjective input of the investigator can still take place.
Caution is most often accompanied by another empirical method - vimir
Vimiryuvannya. Vicorism is practiced everywhere, in every human activity. So, it is practical for people to spend dozens of times doing skin rejuvenation, looking at the anniversary. The meaning of vimir is as follows: “Vimiryuvannya is a cognitive process that occurs in the equalization... given quantity with various meanings taken as a symbol of equalization” (div., for example,).
In addition, death is based on the empirical method (operational method) of scientific research.
You can see the song structure of the vimiru, which includes the following elements:
1) the subject who knows, interacts with specific cognitive purposes;
2) modes of extinction, among which can be applied either to tools constructed by humans or to objects and processes given by nature;
3) the object of modification, so that the value or power is determined, until the leveling procedure stagnates;
4) the method or method of simulation, which is a set of practical actions, operations that are combined with the help of simulation devices, and also includes logical and calculating procedures;
5) the result of the calculation, which is called a number, which is expressed by additional names or signs.
The epistemological basis of the vibrancy method is inextricably linked with scientific understanding of the clear and complex characteristics of the object that is undergoing (phenomenon). While using this method, more than a few characteristics are recorded, these characteristics are inextricably linked with the clear significance of the object being studied. You can clearly see the many characteristics that contribute to the vimir. The totality of the clear and complex sides of the object that emerges means both the clear independence of these sides and their deep interconnections. The significant independence of certain characteristics allows one to study them in the process of vibrating, and the results of vibrating can be analyzed through the analysis of certain aspects of the object.
The problem of the accuracy of vimir also relates to the epistemological understanding of vimir as a method of empirical knowledge. The accuracy of the simulation depends on the relationship between objective and subjective officials in the simulation process.
Such objective officials include:
- the young vidiland in the doslijuvuvoy o' -quiet -sophisticated Kilki characteristics, the bangookh vipads of the pre -Sliznnya, Zokrem, and socialist manifestations that are processed, and an hour is incorrectly;
- The possibilities of extinction processes (their level of perfection) and the minds in which the process of extinction is carried out. In some cases, determining the exact value of the value is fundamentally impossible. It is impossible, for example, to calculate the trajectory of an electron in an atom.
Before subjective officials, the experimenter is given the choice of methods of experimentation, the organization of this process, a whole complex of cognitive abilities of the subject - depending on the qualifications of the experimenter - is correctly and competently determined until the end of the experiment. and results.
In contrast to direct experiments, the method of indirect experimentation is widely rejected in the process of scientific experimentation. In the case of indirect measurement of the Shukan, the value is determined based on the direct measurement of other quantities, which is based on the first functional significance. The measured values of mass and body volume indicate its thickness; pitomy of the conductor's supports can be found based on the measured values of the support, the area of the transverse section of the conductor, etc. The role of indirect alterations in these situations is especially great, if direct alterations in the minds of objective reality are impossible. For example, the mass of any cosmic object (natural) is determined using mathematical calculations, which are based on historical data on the vibration of other physical quantities.
Special thanks go to Rozmova about the extinction scale.
A scale is a numerical system in which different authorities keep track of items, translation processes within the authorities and other factors, usually numbers.
There are several types of scales. First of all, you can see discrete scales (in some cases the value of the estimated value is purely - for example, the rating in points - “1”, “2”, “3”, “4”, “5”) and continuous scales (for example, mass in grams or volume in liters). In another way, you can see the scales of intervals, interval scales, ordinal (rank) scales and nominal scales (name scales) - div. 5, which also shows the tightness of the scales - that is, their “separateness”. The thickness of the scale can be determined as a level of ability to accurately describe objects, such as the information that is assessed on a subscale scale. For example, the patient’s condition can be assessed on a naming scale: “healthy” - “sick”. Great information will be provided by the measurement of the same patient on the interval or daily scale: temperature, arterial pressure, etc. threshold temperature" at 37 C and take into account that the patient is healthy, whose temperature is below the threshold and is otherwise ill, then you can move from the denomination scale to the name scale. The reverse transition is difficult - information about whether the patient is healthy (that his temperature is below the threshold) does not allow us to say exactly what his temperature is.

Let's take a look, next important, at the power of several main types of scales, overriding in the order of change in intensity.
The scale is the tightest scale. It allows you to estimate how many times one visualized object is larger (smaller) than another object taken for an image, one. For the wear scales, the natural cob of the stem (zero) is used. The scales of the scales show all physical quantities - linear dimensions, area, circumference, strength, tightness, etc.
All figures vibrate with the same precision. Vimir accuracy is the degree of closeness of the vimir result to the reference value of the vimir value. The accuracy of the vimiru is characterized by the smallness of the vimiru - the difference between the simulated and reference values.
There are systematic (permanent) abductions (kidnappings), based on factors that operate, however, during repeated extinction, for example, malfunction of the extinction device, and episodic abductions, causing variations in the minds of extinction. and/or the accuracy of the boundary values of the instruments being adjusted (for example, fixtures).
According to the theory of survivability, it is clear that if there is a large number of extinctions, the extinction of the extinction of the extinction can be:
- greater than the mean square difference (indicated by the Greek letter sigma and the square root of the variance - the difference is lower in section 2.3.2) in approximately 32% of cases. Apparently, the actual values of the measured value are in the interval of the average value plus/minus the average quadratic correction with a homogeneity of 68%;
- more than the average square measure in less than 5% of cases. Apparently, the actual value of the measured value is in the interval of the average value plus/minus the average square measure with a consistency of 95%;
- more than triple mean square reduction in less than 0.3% of losses. Apparently, the corresponding values of the measured value are in the interval of the average value plus/minus the triple average square measure with a confidence of 99.7%
So, it is extremely unlikely that the sudden loss of the world would be greater than the triple mean quadratic loss. Therefore, for the range of the “true” value of the measured value, choose the arithmetic mean value plus/minus triple mean square (the so-called “three sigma rule”).
It is necessary to emphasize that what is said here about the accuracy of the vimirs depends on the scales of values and intervals. For other types of scales on the right, it is highly complex and benefits from reading specialized literature (div., for example,).
The scale of intervals stagnates and is rarely characterized by the fact that it does not depend on the natural cob. The end of the interval scale is the temperature scale in Celsius, Reaumur or Fahrenheit. The Celsius scale, apparently, was established at the beginning: the freezing point of water was taken as zero, the boiling point was taken as 100 degrees, and, apparently, the temperature interval between the freezing and boiling points of water was divided by 100 r ivnyh parts. It is already firmly established that a temperature of 30C or more, or less than 10C, will be incorrect. The interval scale maintains the ratio of the same intervals (resistances). We can say: a temperature of 30C rises twice as much as a temperature of 20C, a lower temperature of 15C rises as a temperature of 10C.
An ordinal scale (scale of ranks) is a scale in which the value of which can no longer be said about those, how many times the value is greater (mensha) per inshu, nor how much more is greater (minsha). Such a scale does not place objects in an ordinal order, assigning them different scores (the result of measurements and ordering of objects).
For example, this is how the Mohs scale of hardness of minerals was created: a set of 10 standard minerals was taken with the specified water-bearing hardness using the scraping method. For 1 dose of talc, for 2 - gypsum, for 3 - calcite, and so on up to 10 - diamond. Hardness can definitely be attributed to any mineral. If the following mineral, for example, wears down quartz (7), but does not wear down topaz (8), then its hardness is likely to be 7. Similar to the strength scale of the Beaufort wind and Richter earthquakes.
Scales of order are widely used in sociology, pedagogy, psychology, medicine and other less precise sciences, such as, say, physics and chemistry. Okrema, the scale of school badges at balls has been expanded everywhere (five-point, twelve-point, etc.) and can be brought up to the scale of order.
A special type of ordinal scale is a dichotomous scale, in which there are only two ordered gradations - for example, “prepared to institute”, “without entering”.
The naming scale (nominal scale) is actually no longer connected with the concepts of “magnitude” and is merely a method of distinguishing one object from another: telephone numbers, vehicle registration numbers, etc.
The results of the experiments must be analyzed, and for this it is often necessary to use secondary (secondary) data on their basis in order to consolidate the experimental data until further transformation. The most widespread indicator is the average of values - for example, the average income of people, the average growth, the average income per capita of the population, etc. The values of these and other scales of extinctions indicate a neutral transformation that is permissible for the results of extinctions on this scale (report of a remarkable publication on the theory of extinctions).
Let's start with the weakest scale - the naming scale (nominal scale), which shows pairwise marked classes of objects. For example, the scale has different meanings for “state”: “man” and “woman”. These classes will be noted regardless of what different terms and signs for their meanings will be used: “special female status” and “special human status”, or “female” and “male”, or “A” and "B" or “1” and “2”, or “2” and “3”, etc. Also, for the naming scale there must be one-to-one transformations in order to preserve the clarity of objects (thus, the weakest scale - the naming scale - allows for the widest range of transformations).
The importance of the ordinal scale (rank scale) in the scale is called the same as in the rank scale of the class (group) of objects being ordered. Therefore, it is not possible to change the meaning of the sign - you must preserve the order of the objects (the order of passing one object after another). Also, for an ordinal scale, it is acceptable even if it is monotonic. Substance, Yakshcho Ottsіku A - 5 Baliv, and Op'kta B - 4 Bali, then not to snake, Yakshcho, the number of balins is multiplying for all for all for all the number of positive , or squared i etc. (for example, replacing “1”, “2”, “3”, “4”, “5” is equivalent to “3”, “5”, “9”, “17”, “102”). In this case, the differences and the “balivs” will change, but order will be preserved.
For the scale of intervals, it is permissible not to be monotonically recombined, but since it preserves the relative difference of estimates, so that linear reconversion is multiplied by a positive number and/or the addition of a constant number. For example, if we add 2730C to the temperature value in degrees Celsius, then we subtract the Kelvin temperature, and the differences between any two temperatures in both scales will be the same.
And, you will find, in the tightest scale - the scale of densities - there can be no more transformation of similarity - multiplied by a positive number. Instead, this means that, for example, the weight of two items cannot be stored in any units of weight - grams, kilograms, pounds, etc.
What is stated in Table. 4, which shows the consistency between scales and permissible transformations.

As things are meant, the results of any kind of experiments are carried, as a rule, to one of the main (overcorrected) types of scales. If the results of the extinctions cease to be self-inflicted, the results must be analyzed, and which will often be based on the same results. These current indicators may vary in other scales, lower ones. For example, you can use a 100-point scale to evaluate knowledge. However, it is very detailed, and if necessary, it can be used in five-point ("1" - from "1" to "20"; "2" - from "21" to "40"), or double-point (for example, Positive assessment - everything greater than 40 points, negative - 40 or less). So, a problem arises - how transformations can be reduced to these and other types of output data. In other words, the transition from which scale to which is correct. This problem of the theory of vimirs was called the problem of adequacy.
To solve the problem of adequacy, it is possible to speed up the interconnection of scales and permissible changes for them, so that no operation in processing output data is permissible. So, for example, the operation is so broad, like calculating the arithmetic mean, it cannot be vicoristan, since it is removed from the ordinal scale. The basic idea is this - there is always a possible transition from a heavier scale to a smaller scale, as a result (for example, based on the ratings taken from the scale, there can be point scores on an ordinal scale, as a result ).
Having completed the description of such an empirical method as vimir, let us turn to other empirical methods of scientific research.
Opituvannya. This empirical method is less common in the humanities and sciences. The method of training is divided into sleep training and written training.
Sleeping experience (Rozmova, interview). The essence of the method is clear from its name. During the course of feeding, you have special contact with your partner, so that you can determine how your partner reacts to different nutrition. Care can be taken to supply different supplementary foods at different times and thus remove supplements from certain unclarified foods.
Testing will give specific results, and with the help of this you can select different types of nutritional supplements that follow. However, the nourishment of the “slick” character of the experiment is evidenced by the letter richly in the opening and the evidence in which the reports and groundwork are given.
Writing uses less energy per hour to sleep than to writing. However, this method has its negative sides. All information is present in different minds, and actions from them can be obtained through additional information; Viraz accusatory or whatever gesture of the interrogator gives a certain influx to the interrogator.
Feeding, as the interviews are conducted, is planned in advance and a feeder is created, which may take place in the recording (logging) of the line.
The main benefits of a folded diet:
1) training should not be sporadic, but systematic; Whenever nutrition is more important, it appears that it is asked earlier, more important - later;
2) meals should be concise, specific and reasonable for all people;
3) nutrition is not subject to ethical standards.
Rules for conducting the test:
1) at the hour of the interview, the investigator will be alone with the investigator, without third-party intelligence;
2) skin nutrition is read from the nutrition sheet verbatim, in an unchanged form;
3) the order of nutrition is precisely adjusted; It is not the responsibility of the hospitalist to read the progress of the child's food;
4) the interview is short - from 15 to 30 minutes, depending on the age and intellectual level of the participants;
5) the interviewee is not guilty of implying on the confirmatory in any way (indirectly suggesting confirmation, hitting his head as a sign of non-praise, nodding his head or something);
6) The interviewee can, at any time, if the answer is not understood, put in excess of neutral information (for example: “What did you want to tell them?”, “Explain a little later!”).
7) responses are recorded in the feed only during the hour of testing.
Next, the evidence is analyzed and interpreted.
Letter survey - questionnaire. It is based on a detailed survey (questionnaire), and the responses of the respondents (surveys) under all positions of the surveyor become empirical information.
The extent of the empirical information obtained as a result of the questionnaire lies in factors such as the formulation of the questionnaire, which were relevant to the participant; qualifications, evidence, confusion, psychological characteristics of investigators; situation of experience, yogo mind; the emotional state of the survivors; These are traditions, manifestations, and living situations; and also - installation before opituvannya. Therefore, when receiving such information, it is necessary to make allowances for the inevitability of subjective problems due to the specific individual “brokenness” of them in the experience of the participants. And there, when it comes to fundamentally important nutrition, the training progresses to other methods - caution, expert assessments, document analysis.
p align="justify"> Particular attention is paid to the development of the experiment - questionnaires, which contain a series of nutrition necessary for the selection of information according to the goals and hypothesis of the investigation. The questionnaire must meet the following requirements: be framed for the purpose of this purpose, in order to ensure the capture of information that is being sought; mother stable criteria and reliable rating scales that adequately reflect the situation under investigation; The formula of nutrition may be sensible to the experienced and not over-indulgent; The use of the questionnaire is not responsible for inducing negative emotions in the respondent (as evidenced).
The food can be either closed or open. Let’s close the term “nutrition” because it introduces a new set of test options in the questionnaire. Opinion only means the option that goes with your thoughts. This form of the questionnaire significantly speeds up the time of filling out and making the questionnaire available for processing on the computer in one hour. However, there is a need to carefully consider the idea of a well-fed diet, which includes the preparation of alternatives later. In this way the food is injected until it’s dry.
Depending on the nutritional status, the patient is likely to suffer from signs of moisture. Well, this answer is more individualized.
Improvements in the reliability of evidence also enhance other benefits. One of them is that the respondent is guaranteed the opportunity to escape from the evidence and come up with an unimportant thought. For this purpose, the rating scale can convey variants of the following: “it’s important to say”, “it’s important to tell”, “it happens differently”, “if yak” etc. However, the importance of such options is due to evidence of either the incompetence of the respondent or the inadequacy of the formulation of the nutritional information required.
In order to obtain reliable information about the investigation object, the process, it is necessary to survey the entire contingent, the fragments of the investigation object can be numerically even greater. In these situations, when the object of investigation exceeds hundreds of people, the sampling questionnaire will be blocked.
Method of expert assessments. In essence, a variety of experiments, connections from the findings to the assessment of further investigations, the processes of the most competent people, the ideas of which to add and check again one more time, make it possible to objectively evaluate the results Ijuvan. The vikoristaniya of this suggests low minds. First of all, we need a thorough selection of experts - people who are well aware of the area being assessed, the object that is being studied, and those who are knowledgeable before an objective, unforeseen assessment.
These values also require the selection of an accurate and manual rating system and different scales, so that the ordinal reduction makes it possible to determine them in small quantities.
Most often, it is necessary to teach experts to use standardized scales for unambiguous assessments in order to minimize biases and ensure consistent assessments.
As experts, who work independently of each other, consistently avoid either close assessments or identify similar thoughts, and assume that they are approaching the objective. Well, the assessments diverge greatly, which means either about the recent choice of the rating system and scales, or about the incompetence of experts.
Variants of the method of expert assessments are: the committee method, the brainstorming method, the Delphi method, the heuristic forecasting method, etc.
Testing is an empirical method, a diagnostic procedure similar to standard tests (from the English test - test, sample). Tests are often given to those tested, either in the form of food, which extract short and unambiguous conclusions, or in the case of a task, which does not take too many hours and also extracts unambiguous solutions, or in the case of any short-line practical work below the last one, for example, qualified trial work vocational education, economics etc. Tests are divided into forms, equipment (for example, computers) and practical ones; for individual and group registration.
The axis, perhaps, and all the empirical methods and operations that exist today in scientific power. Next, we will look at the empirical methods of operations that will be based on different methods of operations and their use.
Empirical methods (methods).
First of all, empirical methods can be divided into two classes. The first class is a method of transferring an object without its transformation, if the investigator does not make any changes, transforming it into the investigation object. More precisely, do not make significant changes to the object - and even, according to the principle of suppleness (wonderful), the follower (poster) cannot help but change the object. We call them the methods of object release. These include: the most important method of revealing and disclosing your privacy – surveillance, monitoring, verification and confidentiality.
Another class of methods of relating to the active transformation of the previous object, which includes - called transformation methods - up to which class such methods as the last work and experiment go.
Most often, in the lower sciences there is, perhaps, a single empirical method. For example, in astronomy. Even astronomers cannot yet connect with cosmic objects that are orbiting. The only possibility is to follow the current situation using different methods and operations: caution and suppression. However, it is important to come to such conclusions of scientific knowledge as geography, demography, etc., where the investigator cannot change the object of investigation.
On the other hand, the system becomes stagnant if there is a metamorphosis of the natural functioning of the object. For example, both these and other features of radioactive substances must be emphasized or the reliability of technical devices, which is verified by their regular operation.
Quilting - as a result of the method of quilting - is a development of the object, which is followed, in other words, in depth and detail in the detail of the tasks set by the successor. A synonym for the word “quilting” is “look”, which means that quilting is an important part of an object, carried out to become familiar with its shape, functions, structure, etc. Obstheneniya most often stagnates with one hundred organizational structures - enterprises, installations, etc. - or a hundred hundred huge works, for example, of populated areas, for which support can be either external or internal.
External pressures: improvement of the sociocultural and economic situation in the region, improvement of the market for goods and services and the market of goods, improvement of the employment status of the population, etc. bud. .
It is necessary to carry out additional methods-operations of empirical investigation: surveillance, study and analysis of documentation, oral and written training, obtaining experts, etc.
Be sure to follow a previously developed detailed program in which the work is planned in detail, its tools (folding questionnaires, test kits, applications, transfer of documents that support the test, etc.), as well as criteria ї assessments of the phenomena that promote addiction, and processes . Then there are stages: collecting information, organizing materials, selecting bags and processing other materials. At the skin stage, there may be a need to adjust the program, if the investigator or group of investigators who are conducting it switches over so that the collected data does not appear in order to obtain the desired results or collect the data. do not display a picture of the object that is being viewed, etc.
Beyond the level of depth, detailing and systematization of quilting are divided into:
- aerodynamic quilting, which is carried out for forward, close surface orientation in the object that is being twisted;
- specialized (partial) quilting that is carried out to transform the surrounding aspects, sides of the object that is being treated;
- modular (complex) furnishing - modification of entire blocks, power supply complexes, programmed by the investigator in order to complete the report of the advanced modification of the object, its structure, functions, etc.;
- systemic consolidation - conducting a full-fledged independent investigation of the articulation and formulation of their subject, marks, hypotheses, etc., and which convey a complete view of the object, its system-creating officials
On what level the treatment of a specific skin condition is carried out depends on the successor himself and the successor team, depending on the goals set and the task of scientific work.
Monitoring. This is a constant view, a regular update of the object, the value of other parameters by changing the dynamics of the processes that occur, predicting these and other conditions, as well as avoiding unimportant events. For example, environmental monitoring, weather monitoring, etc.
Vivchennya and zagalnennya dosvidu (activities). When conducting research and verification of information (organizational, industrial, technological, medical, pedagogical, etc.) it is carried out for different purposes: to determine the level of detail of enterprises, organization installation, operation of the technological process, identification of shortcomings and high points in the practice of these and other areas activities, testing the effectiveness of scientific recommendations, identifying new manifestations of activity that are popular among the creative minds of advanced researchers, specialists and entire teams. The object of investigation could be: mass evidence - identification of the main trends in the development of this or that branch of the people's rule; negative evidence - identification of typical shortcomings and high school places; advanced evidence, in the process of which new positive discoveries are revealed, established, and become evident in science and practice.
The development and development of advanced research is one of the main components of the development of science, since this method makes it possible to identify current scientific problems and creates the basis for the development of patterns in the development of processes at the bottom of scientific knowledge, first of all - about technological sciences.
Criteria for advanced investigation:
1) Novelty. It can appear in a different world: from the introduction of new provisions to science to the effective stagnation of existing provisions.
2) High efficiency. Advanced evidence is responsible for producing results better than the average for Galusia, groups of similar objects, etc.
3) Relevance to current achievements of science. The achievement of high results will once again confirm the relevance of the power of science.
4) Stability - saving the effectiveness of the process of changing minds, achieving high results will take many hours.
5) Replication - the ability to be replicated by other people and organizations. Advanced evidence can be obtained by other people and organizations. They may also be related to the special characteristics of the author.
6) Optimality to the fullest - achieving high results for a very economical use of resources, and also not at the expense of other tasks.
Education and verification are carried out through such empirical methods and operations as care, training, education of literature and documents, etc.
There are few methods for identifying different species - monitoring, monitoring, teaching and documenting in accordance with empirical methods - there is a clearly passive role of the investigator - they can be taught, learned and followed to lust over those that have developed in excessive activity, without losing the ability to actively join in on them , what they are waiting for. process. Let us say once again that this is not a lot of thinking about objective circumstances. There are few shortcomings in the method of transforming the object: the work and experiment have been completed.
Before methods are used to transform the object of investigation, further research and experimentation is required. The importance of them lies at the level of the success of the investigator. If the work has been completed - a non-strict investigative procedure, in which case the investigator makes changes to the object for the authority to judge, without authority, then the experiment is a completely vicious procedure, where the investigator is guilty entirely trimuvatisya vimogam experiment.
The work has been completed - this is, as stated, the method of making minor changes to the object that is being modified, with a known level of svaville. So, the geologist himself determines - what methods are used - drilling in Sverdlovsk, digging in shurfi, etc. This is how the archaeologist and paleontologist defines how and how to excavate. Otherwise, pharmacy is constantly searching for new medicinal products - out of 10 thousand synthesized compounds, only one becomes a medicinal product. Or, for example, the work of the rural state has been completed.
The work has been proven as a research method and is widely used in sciences related to the activities of people - pedagogy, economics, etc., when models are created and verified, usually copyrighted by companies, initial deposits too well, because different authors are created and verified techniques. Or a proof-of-concept, a proof-of-preparation, a proof-of-concept is created, and then it is verified in practice.
It has been proven that the work in the singing sense is similar to a clear experiment - and here and there nothing is put in place: “what will you see, if...?” Only in an obvious experiment the situation is played out “in the mind,” but in the final work the situation is played out in action.
Alas, the work has been completed – it’s not a blind, chaotic sound of “test and find”.
The completed work becomes a method of scientific investigation for such minds:
1. If it is based on the data obtained by science, it is consistent with a theoretically based hypothesis.
2. If it is accompanied by a deep analysis, conclusions emerge from it and theoretical conclusions are created.
The last robot will have all the methods and operations of empirical investigation: surveillance, surveillance, document analysis, expert assessment, etc.
The completed robot occupies an intermediate place between the object and the experiment.
Vaughn is a way of actively presenting a follow-up to the object. Protely proven work gives, at a glance, the results of the effectiveness and ineffectiveness of these and other innovations in general, overall appearance. Which of the innovations that are being promoted will give a greater effect, or a smaller one, as the stinks will flow one on one - it is impossible to say on the basis of which the food is confirmed by the robot.
For a deeper understanding of the essence of each phenomenon, the changes that occur in the new, and the reasons for these changes, the process goes into the variation of minds between the phenomena and processes and the factors that influence them . For these purposes it is an experiment.
An experiment is a hidden empirical method of investigation (method), the essence of which lies in the fact that phenomena and processes are studied in strictly controlled and controlled minds. The basic principle of any experiment is the change in the skin procedure before the investigation by at least one official, with the consistency and control of others. If it is necessary to check the injection of another official, the next procedure is carried out, where this other official is changed, and other officials are no longer unchanged under other control.
During the course of the experiment, the investigator consciously changes the passage of any object by introducing a new official. A new factor that is introduced or changed by the experimenter is called an experimental factor or an independent change. Officials who changed due to the influx of independent change are called lazy change.
The literature has a rich classification of experiments. In advance, depending on the nature of the object being investigated, we usually divide experiments into physical, chemical, biological, psychological, etc. , ideas). Depending on the nature and diversity of characteristics and minds, the experiment and methods of determining these characteristics can be divided into direct (as the points are analyzed directly to track the object), model (as the model is analyzed, etc.) o replaces the object), field (in natural minds, for example, in cosmos), laboratory (in individual minds) experiment.
You can, you might say, talk about clear and subtle experiments based on the significance of the experimental results. Explicit experiments should be carried out to identify the influence of these and other factors on the follow-up process without establishing an exact proportion between characteristic values. To ensure the exact meaning of the present parameters that influence the behavior of the object being tested, a small experiment is necessary.
Depending on the nature of the experimental research strategy, the following can be distinguished:
1) experiments that are carried out using the “trial and trial” method;
2) experiments based on a closed algorithm;
3) experiments using the additional “black screen” method, which will lead to the knowledge of the function to the knowledge of the structure of the object;
4) experiments with the help of an “open screen”, which allows, based on knowledge of the structure, to create an expression from given functions.
In the remaining years of widespread expansion, experiments have arisen, in which the computer plays a special role in knowledge. These are especially important if real systems do not allow direct experimentation, nor experimentation with the help of material models. In a number of computer experiments, the tracking process is greatly simplified - they help to “play out” the situation by identifying the model of the system that is being tested.
In discussing experiment as a method of knowledge, one cannot help but note another type of experimentation that plays a great role in natural research. This is a clear experiment - the investigator operates not with specific, sensitive material, but with an ideal, model order. All knowledge, extracted from the time of explicit experimentation, encourages practical verification, based on real experimentation. Therefore, this type of experimentation is brought up to the methods of theoretical knowledge (wonderful thing). P.V. Kopnin, for example, writes: “Scientific research is only truly experimental if the focus is not on arbitrary observation, but on sensitive, practical monitoring of phenomena. Therefore, what is sometimes called a theoretical or rational experiment is not actually an experiment. The Dumkov experiment is primarily a theoretical experiment that gives new forms to the experiment.”
Before the theoretical methods of scientific knowledge, similar actions are carried out to other types of experiments, for example, so-called mathematical and simulation experiments. “The essence of the method of mathematical experimentation lies in the fact that experiments are carried out not with the object itself, as is the case in the classical experimental method, but with its description of my subfield of mathematics.” A simulated experiment is an idealized study of additional modeling of the behavior of an object instead of a real experiment. Otherwise, these types of experimentation are variants of a model experiment with idealized images. The report on mathematical modeling and simulation experiments is below in the third section.
Also, we tried to describe the methods of investigation from further positions. Naturally, the skin of scientific knowledge has developed a long tradition of interpretation and research methods. Thus, the method of frequency analysis in linguistics will be related to the method of extraction (method-action), which is based on the methods-operations of document analysis and vibrancy. Experiments are usually divided into experimental, initial, control and routine. Ale stinks are experiments (methods-actions), created methods-operations: caution, vimir, testing, etc.