What is the meaning of the humoral theory of immunity? Cellular immunity. Cellular and humoral immunity

Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences Sergiy Nedospasov, Boris Rudenko, reviewer for the journal “Science and Life”.

Revolutionary breakthroughs in the field of science occur infrequently, once or twice a century. In order to realize that the revolution in the well-known world has truly taken place, to evaluate its results, scientific strength and success in general, it will take more than one day It's been more than a decade. In immunology, such a revolution began almost at the end of the last century. They prepared dozens of extensive studies, hypotheses, hypotheses, hypotheses, and theories that were formulated, and these theories and theories were developed hundreds of years ago.

Paul Erlich (1854-1915).

Illya Mechnikov (1845-1916).

Charles Genway (1943-2003).

Jules Hoffmann.

Ruslan Medzhitov.

Drosophila, mutant for the Toll gene, became overgrown with fungi and died, leaving no immune receptors that recognize fungal infections.

Two schools, two theories

Throughout the 20th century, right up to the beginning of the 1990s, research into the immune system has continued to show that the immune system has the greatest strength and strength in humans. The axis and the track are twisted forward. And since we have not yet “understood” the immunology of birds, fish and comas, then the knowledge of the mechanisms of protection against human diseases does not play a special role, which seems to be the case for everything.

Immunology as a science began a century ago. Wanting to associate the first vaccination with Jenner, the father-founder of immunology rightfully respects the great Louis Pasteur, who began to search for the answer to the survival of the human race, regardless of the regular devastating epidemic of the black plague sleep, cholera, what will fall on the edges and continents . Millions, tens of millions of dead. Even in places and villages where funeral teams did not bother to clean up corpses from the streets, there were those who independently, without the help of healers and chakluns, coped with the deadly heap. And also those who were not affected by illness at all. Well, there is a mechanism in the human body that protects it from any kind of invasion. This is called immunity.

Pasteur developed the concept of artificial immunity, expanding the methods of his creation behind additional vaccination, and it gradually became clear that immunity exists in two forms: natural (innate) and adaptive (additional). Which one is more important? Which one plays a role in successful vaccination? At the beginning of the 20th century, two theories and two schools, those of Paul Ehrlich and Illie Mechnikov, came into sharp focus in scientific debate.

Paul Erlich was neither in Kharkov nor in Odessa. Having held its universities in Breslau (Breslau, n. Wroclaw) and Strasbourg, working in Berlin, at the Koch Institute, having created the first serological control station in the world, and then establishing an experimental research institute raphi in Frankfurt am Main, which one should wear today I. And here it is clear that in conceptual terms Erlich has worked for immunology in the entire history of the founding of this science, more than anything else.

Mechnikov discovered phagocytosis - accumulation and depletion of special cells - macrophages and neutrophils - microbes and other biological particles foreign to the body. This mechanism itself, being important, is the main one in the immune system, acting as a line of defense against invading pathogens. The phagocytes themselves rush to attack, triggering a burning reaction, for example, with an injection, scaling, etc.

Erlikh brought the disease to the point of deterioration. The main role of protection against infection belongs not to the cells, but to the antibodies that are secreted by them - specific molecules that are created in the blood of the vicinity of the aggressor. Erlich's theory was called the theory of humoral immunity.

It’s cool that the irreconcilable scientific rivals - Mechnikov and Erlich - shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1908 for work in the field of immunology, although to this day the theoretical and practical successes of E The leader and his successors, it would seem, Mechnikov’s thoughts were completely empty. They thought that the prize was awarded to the latter, most likely, for the totality of his merits (which is not at all excluded and not in doubt: immunology is one of the areas in which Russian teachings have made great contributions to world science). However, as it turns out, the members of the Nobel Committee, as it turned out, were quite right, they themselves thought, although confirmation of this came only a hundred years later.

Erlich died in 1915, Mechnikov outlived his opponent until the end of the century, and until the end of the century the scientific scientific research developed without the participation of his initiators. In the meantime, everything that was discovered in immunology over the past decade confirmed that Paul Ehrlich was right. It was established that white blood cells, lymphocytes, are divided into two types: B and T (here it is necessary to emphasize that the discovery of T lymphocytes in the mid-twentieth century brought the science of infused immunity to the whole m_nshiy rnіn - the founders of which could not be transferred) . They themselves organize protection against viruses, microbes, fungi and substances that are hostile to the body. B-lymphocytes produce antibodies that bind foreign proteins, neutralizing its activity. And T-lymphocytes recognize the infected cells and combine the previous infection with the body in other ways, and in both cases, a memory of the pathogen is created, so it is much easier for the body to fight repeated infection. These dry lines are designed to deal with loose or degenerated protein, which becomes unsafe for the body. Unfortunately, such a situation, when there is a failure in the adjusted mechanism of the adaptive immune system, can become the cause of autoimmune illnesses, if lymphocytes have lost the ability to separate their own proteins from foreign ones, they begin to “shoot at their own people.”

Thus, until the 80s of the 20th century, immunology was mainly developed along the lines indicated by Erlich, and not by Mechnikov. Incredibly complex, fantastically refined by millions of fates of evolution, the adaptive immunity is gradually revealing its mysteries. Vaccines and sirens have been created for a long time, which would help the body to most effectively organize the immune response to infection, and remove antibiotics, which would suppress the biological activity of the aggressor, having eased thus the robot of lymphocytes. True, fragments of a large number of microorganisms exist in symbiosis with the ruler, antibiotics are attacked with no less enthusiasm on their allies, weakening and causing problems once again. ii, but medicine marked this and scored on a flash richly, richly later...

However, the frontiers of permanent victory over the ailments, which at first appeared to be such achievable ones, were disappearing all the way to the horizon, so that over time food appeared and accumulated, which the master’s theory could not support. The development of vaccines did not go as smoothly as it had been planned.

It appears that 98% of the creatures that live on Earth have lost adaptive immunity (in evolution, this appears to be less than the number of snapping fish). And they all also have their own enemies in the biological microworld, their own illnesses and epidemics, which the populations cope with successfully. It also appears that in the human microflora there are a lot of organisms that, it would seem, simply need to respond to illness and induce the immune system. There is no father.

There are dozens of similar foods. Decades of stench were removed from the air.

How revolutions begin

In 1989, the American immunologist Professor Charles Janeway published a work that was soon recognized as a prophet, although, as in Mechnikov’s theory, she had and will lose serious, erudite opponents. Genuya admitted that on human cells, which are responsible for immunity, there are special receptors that recognize various structural components of pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi) and trigger the reaction mechanism I have confirmed. Fragments of potential buds get sick in the sub-monthly world, there is no treatment, Genoa assumes that the receptors will recognize some “invariant” chemical structures characteristic of the whole las of pathogens. Otherwise, you just can’t tap your genius!

Through a series of fatalities, Professor Jules Hoffmann (who later became the President of the French Academy of Sciences) discovered that the Drosophila fly - perhaps an indispensable participant in the most important decisions of genetics - may dry up the system, until then it was not understood and not appreciated well. It turned out that this fruit fly contains a special gene that is not only important for the development of the larvae, but also associated with the innate immune system. If a muscle has a zipsuvat gene, then when infected with fungi there will be no gyne. Moreover, other illnesses, such as those of a bacterial nature, do not die, like those of a fungal nature - inevitably. Vikritya allowed him to earn three important rewards. First of all, the primitive fruit fly is endowed with a strong and effective innate immune system. Otherwise, their cells contain receptors that recognize infections. Thirdly, the receptor is specific to the specific class of infections, so that it can be recognized not just as a foreign “structure”, but as a whole. But this receptor does not protect against other “structures”.

This axis is twofold – perhaps the most obvious theory and the first unsatisfactory experimental result – and is considered to be the beginning of a great immunological revolution. Further, as it happens in science, the fields developed over time. Ruslan Medzhitov, who graduated from Tashkent University, then postgraduate studies at the Moscow State University, and then became a professor at Ele University (USA) and gained insight into light immunology, having first discovered these receptors on human cells neither.

So, perhaps a hundred years later, the long-standing theoretical super-chair of great scientific superniks remained in existence. Having paid attention to those who were offended by the race, their theories complemented one another, and theory I. I. Mechnikova provided new experimental confirmation.

In fact, a conceptual revolution has taken place. It turned out that for everyone who lives on Earth, their innate immunity is the head one. And only those organisms that have been “stuck through” by the gatherings of evolution – those with the greatest backbone for profit – are blamed for the immunity of swelling. However, the very nature of the project is based on its launch and further work, wanting a lot of details on how everything is regulated and still needs to be installed.

"Adjuvant for Your Excellency"

A new look at the interaction between innate and innate immunity helped us to understand what had previously been unintelligible.

How do vaccines work for people who have seizures if they treat them? In a traditional (and even simplified) way, it looks something like this. Weakening disease (for example, virus or bacteria) is administered at the shelter of a donor animal, for example, a horse, a cow, a rabbit, etc. The creature’s immune system produces a toxin. Since the chemical substance is associated with humoral agents - antibodies, its material carriers can be cleaned and transferred to the blood of people, simultaneously transporting the chemical mechanism. In other cases, a weakened (or killed) pathogen infects or immunizes the person himself, precipitating an immune reaction that can prevent the appearance of a real illness from occurring and will become entrenched in the patient’s memory. long rocks. Edward Jenner himself, at the end of the 18th century, was the first in the history of medicine to vaccinate against measles.

However, this technique has not been used for a long time. There are still no vaccines against HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria – the three most dangerous diseases in the world. Moreover, with a lot of simple chemical compounds and proteins, which are foreign to the body and are simply supposed to destroy the immune system, the immune system is not to blame! And it is often believed that the mechanism of the main immune system - the innate immune system - becomes unawakened.

One of the ways to correct this problem was experimentally demonstrated by the American pathologist J. Freund. The immune system begins to work at full strength, as the enemy antigen is mixed with the adjuvant. An adjuvant is a kind of intermediary, an assistant in immunization; according to Freund's research, it is made up of two components. The first one is a water-oil suspension, having completely mechanically ensured the complete vitilization of the antigen. And the other component seems paradoxical at first glance: dried and well-prepared tuberculosis bacteria (Koch sticks). The bacteria are dead, they do not cause infection, but the receptors of the innate immune system still recognize them and turn on the drying mechanisms to increase tension. This axis starts the process of activation of the adaptive immune response to the antigen, which is then mixed with the adjuvant.

Freund's view was entirely experimental and therefore can be kept private. Ale Genuey captured a moment of celestial significance from someone. Moreover, it would be called the unrecognizability of inducing a full-fledged immune response to a foreign protein in experimental animals or in humans “the little breast secret of immunologists” (pushing against those who are exposed to benefit from the presence of an adjuvant, and as the adjuvant works, no one I don't understand).

Genuea and assuming that the innate immune system recognizes bacteria (both living and dead) as components of the cell walls. Bacteria, which live “on their own,” need to protect the cells of the glomeruli from the outer membranes. Our clients, under the heavy cover of foreign dry tissues, do not need such membranes. І bacterial membranes are synthesized with the help of enzymes that we do not need, and therefore the components of bacterial walls are the same chemical structures, ideal indicators of the threat of infection, like an organism during the process of evolution ii by preparing recognition receptors.

There is little context for the main topics.

The Danish scientist-bacteriologist Christian Joachim Gram (1853-1938) is alive, who began the systematization of bacterial infections. You know the saying that one class of bacteria barfed, but not another. Those who have become horny-colored are now, for the sake of eternity, called gram-positive, and those who have lost their color are gram-negative. The skin contains millions of different bacteria. For people - the poor, the neutral and the slightly brown, stinking - living near soil, water, mucus, and intestines is a good thing. Our chemical receptors are able to selectively recognize both, including a clear defense against those that are unsafe for our wearer. And Grama's barnberry can be separated for its connection (or non-relationship) with these very “invariant” components of the bacterial walls.

It turned out that the walls of mycobacteria - and the tuberculosis sticks themselves are visible before them - are particularly complex and are recognized by several receptors. Chantly, the stench of the miraculous adjuvants of power lingers. Also, the effect of using an adjuvant is to fool the immune system, sending a harmful signal that the body is infected with an unsafe pathogen. Zmusiti reaguvati. But in reality, the vaccine has no resistance to such a pathogen, and it is not so dangerous.

There is no doubt that it will be possible to find other, non-natural, adjuvants for immunization and vaccination. This new direction of biological science is of enormous importance for medicine.

The required gene is switched on and off

Current technologies make it possible to knock out a single gene in a pre-trace mouse, which codes for one of the innate immune receptors. For example, it is recognized for the recognition of these very gram-negative bacteria. Therefore, the mouse takes care to ensure its protection and, being infected, the gynecology, although the components of the immune system in it are not damaged. Today, the work of immune systems on a molecular level is being studied experimentally (we have already discussed the butt of a fruit fly). In parallel, clinical studies will begin to establish immunity in people before new infections due to mutations in specific genes. Hundreds of fatalities have come into play when in some families, tribes and other tribes there was an extremely high mortality rate of children in early childhood due to early illnesses. It is now becoming clear that the cause of these seizures is a mutation in some component of the innate immune system. The gene of inclusion - I’ll bring it up often. Since we have most of the genes in two copies, we need to make a special effort to ensure that the offending copies are zipped. This can be “achieved” as a result of close family love or incest. I would like to think for a moment that this explains all the episodes of recession of the immune system.

In any case, if the reason is known, there is a chance to find a way to get rid of the wrongdoer, at least in the future. If a child with a diagnosed congenital defect in the immune system is intended to be directly protected from a dangerous infection until the 2nd or 3rd century, then due to the completion of the formation of the immune system, there is a fatal risk for the child to die. However, without one equal, you can cope with the threat and, perhaps, live a fulfilling life. The risk will be lost, otherwise the price will decrease. There is still hope for those that once gene therapy becomes a common practice. So the sick person simply needs to transfer the “healthy” gene, without mutation. The mouse will have to remove the gene and turn it on. People are much more complex.

About the barkiness of sour milk

Varto guessed about one transfer I. I. Mechnikov. Hundreds of times this is due to the activity of the secreted phagocytes from human food. It is good to know that in the rest of our lives, actively living and fermenting sour milk and other fermented milk products, hardening, so that the introduction of the necessary bacterial medium into the pouch and intestines is extremely important and for the immune system, and for the triviality of life. And here I start my radio again.

In fact, studies of the remaining rocks have shown that the symbiosis of intestinal bacteria and the human body is richly deep and complex, which has never been considered before. Bacteria also assist in the etching process. The fragments in them contain all the characteristic chemical structures of microbes, so the most important bacteria are likely to be recognized by the innate immune system on the intestinal cells. It turned out that through the receptors of the innate immune system, the bacteria send the body “tonic” signals, replacing other conditions. It is also clear that the number of these signals is very important and that there are decreases (for example, there is a lack of bacteria in the intestines when treated with antibiotics), which is one of the factors in the possible development of oncological diseases of the intestinal tract.

Twenty rocks that have passed since the last (or the last?) revolution in immunology is even a small term for a broad practical summary of new ideas and theories. Although it is unlikely that the world has lost at least one serious pharmaceutical company, which is developing without understanding new knowledge about the mechanisms of innate immunity. Several practical successes have already been achieved with the development of new adjuvants for vaccines.

And a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms of immunity - both born and developed (do not forget that the stink can be heard at once - friendship prevailed) - will inevitably lead to significant progress in medicine. It’s not right for anyone to have doubts. You can barely scratch the trace.

However, this is due to the fact that it is important to the population, as well as to the change in stereotypes in immunology. Otherwise, our pharmacies, as before, are bursting with home-grown medicines that will universally boost immunity.

Sergiy Arturovich Nedospasov – Head of the Department of Immunology, Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University named after. M. V. Lomonosova, head of the laboratory of the Institute of Molecular Biology. V. A. Engelhardt RAS, head of the department of the Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology. A. N. Bilozersky.

“Science and Life” about immunity:

Petrov R. Right on target. – 1990, No. 8.

Mate J. Lyudina as seen by an immunologist. – 1990, No. 8.

Tchaikovsky Yu. Juveley of Lamarck-Darwin and the revolution in immunology. - 2009, No. No., .

The body's defense system against foreign substances consists of humoral and cellular immunity. Humoral antibodies are directly visible, like in blood plasma. The cellular response manifests itself in the absence of blood cells.

Theory

They began to actively develop immunity at the end of the 19th century. Then a humoral, phagocytic or cellular theory of immunity was formed. The development of immunology was inspired by the robots of Louis Pasteur, who experimented with the vaccination of animals. At the same time, Emil von Berning worked with him, who achieved the formation of resistance to diphtheria and the treatment of people who were deprived of blood, who became ill and who became ill in patients.

Ilya Mechnikov, who is considered the creator of the phagocytic theory of immunity, spoke about the scientific development of immunity. We discovered phagocytes in the blood that rot foreign objects. These are the main killers of the body, which react first to external enemies.

Small 1. Illya Mechnikov.

Cellular immunity is part of the adaptive immune system. During their life, leukocytes begin to interact with various bacteria, viruses and other foreign objects, and develop specific immune types.

Klitini

The main function of the immune system is performed by special blood cells – leukocytes. The stench differs in appearance and functionality.
There are two functional groups:

• phagocytes;
• Lymphocytes.

Phagocytes show great size and flexibility. They include neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages. It stinks to develop a non-specific immunity, then. They remind us of any kind of alarm. On the surface of the phagocyte there are receptors that recognize foreign objects.

Small 2. Phagocytes.

Phagocytes destroy and poison not only bacteria and viruses, but also any particles - excrements of cellular structures, solid metabolic products, old cells, etc. Their quantity increases sharply at the site of infection. Renewed phagocytes rupture and die, as particles form into new phagocytes. Gniy is a great accumulation of dead phagocytes in one place.

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When an infection occurs in the blood, lymphocytes come to help the phagocytes, forming a specific immune system. The stench begins in the thymus - the thymus gland. As a result, it is lost to blood three types of specialized lymphocytes:

• T-helpers , which recognize the antigen and inform other lymphocytes about the penetration of foreign substances;
• T-cellery or cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, which detect song antigens for further lysis – destruction of microorganisms;
• T-suppressors , which reduces the reaction in the same type when administered to the same antigen.

Small 3. Lymphocytes.

NK lymphocytes and natural cells are clearly visible. Their actions are similar to the functions of T-killers, but are directed not to external antigens, but to internal ones. With this aim, they target all types of normal cells, such as cancers.

Natural cells contain the protein perforin, which creates pores in the cell membrane. Through the pores that have entered the cell, enzymes penetrate, which are seen by NK lymphocytes - proteases. The stench provokes lysis and apoptosis – cell self-depletion.

Most leukocytes are vibrated in the bone marrow. When removed from other blood cells, stench emanates from the core and can emerge from between the bloodstream into the interclinary space.

What did we find out?

The basis for the development of cellular immunity is the slaughter of Ilya Mechnikov, who revealed phagocytes that spoil the wrong and third-party speeches. Together with phagocytes, lymphocytes fight against infections, which results in specialization. Their actions are aimed at recognizing a foreign object and its reduction in the appearance of lysis and apoptosis. Cellular immunity develops over the course of life.

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The foundation of immunology was laid at the entrance of the microscope, which is why it was possible to identify the first group of microorganisms – pathogenic bacteria.

At the end of the 18th century, the English rural doctor Edward Jenner told about his first attempt to overcome illness with additional immunization. How to approach the virus is to watch out for one thing: milkmaids were often infected with cow's disease and never got sick from natural disease. Jenner gave the little boy rotten, taken from the pustule (nettle) of cow's lice and converted, so that the boy appeared immune to natural limp.

Jenner's work gave rise to the germ theory of illness in the 19th century by Pasteur in France and Koch in Germany. They found antibacterial agents in the blood of animals immunized with microbial cells.

Louis Pasteur successfully grew microbes in laboratory minds. As is often the case with science, it was discovered that cholera in chickens was lost during cultivation. During the hour of work, one cup of microbes was forgotten on the laboratory table. It was summer. The microbes in the cup were heated several times under hot conditions, dried out and lost their usefulness, causing illness. However, chickens that were fed with defective tissues were found to be contaminated with fresh cultures of cholera bacteria. Weakened bacteria caused illness, but, in fact, gave immunity.

Louis Pasteur was born in 1881 principles of vaccine development from weakening microorganisms to prevent the development of infectious diseases.

In 1908 Illya Illich Mechnikov and Paul Ehrlich were awarded the Nobel Prize for their work on the theory of immunity.

I. Mechnikov created the cellular (phagocytic) theory of immunity, in which the primary role of antibacterial immunity is due to phagocytosis.

Start I. I. Mechnikov, as a zoologist, experimentally sampled the marine spineless fauna of the Black Sea in Odessa and paid tribute to the fact that the singing cells (coelomocytes) of these creatures destroy all foreign particles (including bacteria) that penetrate from the inside Disgraceful. Then we drew an analogy between this phenomenon and the blood of spinal creatures of microbial bodies. I. I. Mechnikov was informed that this is not the harvesting of a single cell, but a chemical process in the sphere of the whole organism. The ceremonies called the deeds such a rank phagocytes- "devouring clitins." I. I. The swordsmen were the first to look at the fire as if it were dry, but not a ruinous phenomenon.

Against theory I. I. Mechnikov, at the beginning of the 20th century, most pathologists acted, fragments of the stench affected leukocytes (rotten) with pathogenic cells, and phagocytes as carriers of infection throughout the body. Mechnikov's prote robots were supported by Louis Pasteur. Vіn having requested I. Mechnikov practice at his institute in Paris.

Paul Ehrlich opened the antibodies and created humoral theory of immunity, having established that antibodies are passed on to the baby through breast milk, creating passive immunity. Erlikh developed a method for preparing diphtheria antitoxin, which resulted in the loss of millions of children's lives.

Erlich's theory of immunity talk about those on the surface of cells that have special receptors that recognize foreign speech ( antigen-specific receptors). Having come into contact with foreign particles (antigens), these receptors come into contact with cells and, like free molecules, exit the blood. In the article, P. Erlikh called antimicrobial speech in the blood with the term " antibody", fragments of bacteria at that time were called "microscopic bodies."

P. Erlikh admitted that even before contact with a specific microbe in the body, there are already antibodies in the body, which he called “bullet lances.” It is now clear that it affects the receptors of lymphocyte antigens.

1908 Paul Ehrlich was awarded the Nobel Prize for the humoral theory of immunity.

A few years earlier, Karl Landsteiner had already demonstrated the evidence of immunological differences in individuals within the same species.

Peter Medovar demonstrates the amazing accuracy of recognition of foreign proteins by immune cells: they can now detect foreign cells with just one nucleotide change.

Frank Burnet postulated the position (Burnet's axiom) that the central biological mechanism of immunity is the recognition of oneself and others.

1960 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine was awarded to Peter Medawar and Frank Burnet for their support Immunological tolerance(Lat. tolerance- terpene) - recognition and specific tolerance to certain antigens.

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1. III. Recommendations for completing the assignment and preparation before the seminar. To verify the categorical apparatus, you must go completely to the texts of the Federal Law, listed in the list of literature that is recommended.

Mechnikov's theory of immunity- a theory that phagocytosis plays a major role in antibacterial immunity.

From the very beginning, I.I. Mechnikov, as a zoologist, experimentally sampled the marine spineless fauna of the Black Sea in Odessa and paid tribute to those that the singing cells (coelomocytes) of these creatures rot foreign substances (solid particles and bacteria), so penetrated the inner core. Then we drew an analogy between this phenomenon and the blood of spinal creatures of microbial bodies. These processes were followed by other microscopies until I.I. Mechnikov. A few I.I. Mechnikov realized that this is not a process of harvesting a single cell, but a chemical process that affects the entire organism. I.I. Mechnikov was the first to look at the fire as if it were dry, but not a ruinous phenomenon. Against the theory of I.I. Mechnikov from the beginning of the 20th century. There were most pathologists, fragments of the stench guarded phagocytosis at the fire spots, then. in sick places, leukocytes were treated with pathogenic rather than dry cells. Moreover, they appreciated that phagocytes are the distributors of bacteria throughout the body, responsible for the dissemination of infection. All the ideas of I.I. Mechnikov stood; ceremonies calling the rank such a rank withered klitini "klitins that devour." His young French colleagues promoted vicoristic walnut roots of the same meaning. I.I. Mechnikov accepted this option, and the term appeared "Phagocyte". These robots and theories of Mechnikov were extremely worthy of L. Pasteur, and he asked Illy Illich to work at his institute in Paris.

Erlich's theory of immunity- one of the first theories of antibody creation is that cells have antigen-specific receptors that emit like antibodies when exposed to antigen.

In the article of Paul Ehrlich, the author called the antimicrobial speech of the blood with the term “antibody”, fragments of bacteria at that time were called with the term “korper” - microscopic bodies. Ale P. Erlikh “revealed” deep theoretical insight. Regardless of the fact that the facts of that time showed that in the blood of a creature that has not been in contact with a specific microbe of a creature or a person, antibodies against this microbe are not detected, P. Erlikh has officially informed that before contact with a specific microbe in the body. already Antibodies in this species, which he called “bullet lances.” As we now know, this is true, and Erlich’s “bitch lances” are notably used in our time lymphocyte antigen receptors. Later, this method of thought by P. Erlich “stagnated” to pharmacology: in his theory of chemotherapy, it transferred the transfer of receptors for medicinal substances in the body. 1908 r. P. Erlikh was awarded the Nobel Prize for humoral theory of immunity

There are also some other theories.

Bezridka's theory of immunity- a theory that explains the protection of the body from low-infectious diseases due to the specific local resistance of cells to weekdays.

Instructional theories of immunity- the legal name for the theory of anti-antibody creation, in which the role of the antigen in the immune response is given, which directly takes part in the core of the matrix when molded with a specific configuration of the anti-determinant It acts as a factor that directly changes the biosynthesis of immunoglobulins by plasmatic cells.

No. 69 Features of antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, antitumor, transplantation immunity.

Antiviral immunity. The basis of antiviral immunity is cellular immunity. Target cells infected with the virus are produced by cytotoxic lymphocytes, as well as NK cells and phagocytes, which interact with Fc fragments of antibodies attached to virus-specific proteins and infected tissue. Antiviral antibodies are designed to neutralize only infectious viruses, as well as factors of nonspecific immunity - serum antiviral inhibitors. Such viruses, released and blocked by proteins in the body, are eliminated by phagocytes or removed from the section, then again. (so called “visible immunity”). Interferons enhance antiviral resistance by inducing the synthesis of enzymes in cells that inhibit the formation of nucleic acids and proteins of viruses. In addition, interferons may have an immunomodulatory effect and enhance the expression of antigens of the brain histosuiciency complex (MHC) in cells. Antiviral protection of mucous membranes by secretory IgA, which, interacting with viruses, disrupts their adhesion to epitheliocytes.

Antibacterial immunity directives against bacteria and their toxins (antitoxic immunity). Bacteria and their toxins are neutralized by antibacterial and antitoxic antibodies. Bacterial (antigen)-antibody complexes activate complement, the components of which are attached to the Fc fragment of the antibody, and then create a membrane attack complex that ruins the outer membrane of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria. The peptidoglycan of bacterial cell walls is enriched with lysozyme. Antibodies and complement (C3) envelop bacteria and “stick” them to the Fc- and C3b-receptors of phagocytes, concluding the role of opsonins together with other proteins that enhance phagocytosis (C-reactive protein, fibrin genome, mannan-binding lectin).

The main mechanism of antibacterial immunity is phagocytosis. Phagocytes directly move to the object of phagocytosis, responding to chemoattractants: microbial compounds, activated complement components (C5a, C3a) and cytokines. Antibacterial protection of the mucous membranes of secretory IgA, which, interacting with bacteria, interferes with their adhesion on epitheliocytes.

Antifungal immunity. Antibodies (IgM, IgG) in mycosis appear in low titers. The basis of antifungal immunity is cellular immunity. The tissues undergo phagocytosis, an epithelioid granulomatous reaction develops, and sometimes thrombosis of blood vessels. Mycoses, especially opportunistic ones, often develop after extensive antibacterial therapy and in immunodeficiencies. The stench is accompanied by the development of a heightened type of hypersensitivity. Possible development of allergic illnesses after respiratory sensitization with fragments of mentally pathogenic canopy fungi Aspergillus, Penicillium, Mucor, Fusarium, etc.

Anti-tumor immunity based on the Th1-cell immune type, which activates cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, macrophages and NK cells. The role of the humoral (antibody) immune system is small; antibody fragments, combining with antigenic determinants on puffy cells, screen them from the cytopathogenic actions of immune lymphocytes. The plump antigen is recognized by antigen-presenting cells (dendritic cells and macrophages) and either directly or through T helper cells (Th1) is presented to cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which destroy the target cell.

The cream of specific anti-tumor immunity, the immune response to the normal storage of tissues, is realized through the combination of non-specific factors. Non-specific factors that reduce swelling of puffy cells: 1) NK cells, a system of mononuclear cells, the anti-tumor activity of which is enhanced by the influx of interleukin-2 (IL-2) and α-, β-interferons; 2) LAK cells (mononuclear cells and NK cells, activated by IL-2); 3) cytokines (α- and β-interferons, FNP-α and IL-2).

Transplant immunity called an immune reaction to a macroorganism directed against transplanted foreign tissue (graft). Knowledge of the mechanisms of transplantation immunity is necessary to solve one of the most important problems of medical medicine - transplantation of organs and tissues. A wealth of evidence has shown that successful operations involving the transplantation of foreign organs and tissues in the vast majority of cases depend on the immunological integrity of the tissues of the donor and recipient.

The immune reaction to foreign cells and tissues is due to the fact that antigens that are genetically foreign to the body are located in their storage. These antigens, which were called transplantation or histosuiciency antigens, are most widely represented on the CPM of cells.

The rejection reaction is absent depending on the complete affinity of the donor and recipient for histocompatibility antigens - this is also possible in identical twins. The severity of the alienation reaction largely depends on the stage of foreignness, the involvement of the material being transplanted, and the immunoreactivity of the recipient.

When in contact with foreign transplantation antigens, the body reacts with cellular and humoral immune factors. The main factor cell transplantation immunity and T-cells. These cells, after sensitization with donor antigens, migrate to the graft tissue and impart antigen-independent cell-mediated cytotoxicity to them.

Specific antibodies that are activated against foreign antigens (hemaglutinins, hemolysins, leukotoxins, cytotoxins) may be of great importance in the formation of transplantation immunity. They trigger antibody-mediated cytolysis of the graft (complement-mediated and antibody-mediated cytotoxicity).

It is possible to adopt an adaptive transfer of transplantation immunity with the additional activation of lymphocytes or with a specific antiseptic from a sensitized individual to an intact macroorganism.

The mechanism of immune destruction of cell and tissue transplants takes place in two phases. In the first phase, around the transplant and vessels, the accumulation of immunocompetent cells (lymphoid infiltration), including T-cells, is avoided. In the other phase, there is destruction of tissue in the graft by T-killers, the macrophage cell, natural killers, and specific antitelogenesis are activated. This results in immune inflammation, thrombosis of blood vessels, the integrity of the transplant is destroyed and its death is expected. The destroyed tissues are utilized by phagocytes.

During the process of the extrusion reaction, a clone of T- and B-cells of immune memory is formed. A repeated attempt at transplanting these same organs and tissues triggers a second immune response, which proceeds very quickly and will quickly end in transplant rejection.

From the clinical point of view one can see the tumor, the supraglottis and the reconstruction of the graft. The stench dissipates over an hour of implementation of the reaction and other mechanisms.

In 1883 Illya Illich Mechnikov having created a biological one - phagocytic - theory of immunity. This theory was based on the origin of white blood cells - phagocytes -spit and destroy foreign bodies like the body. The foundation for the creation of the theory of phagocytosis was the evolutionary interpretation of phenomena internal cell etching in single-clined ones igniter and immunity in great creatures. Mechnikov having installed the rear parallism between aversion and phagocytosis.

At the same time, with the phagocytic theory of immunity, significant support was given humoral theory immunity, the essence of which was reduced to the recognition of dryness bactericidal compounds blood plasma and lymph. So, D. Hunter still in the 18th century. Having first identified the galmic effect of blood serum on the process of putrefaction, without revealing, however, the destruction of putrefactive bacteria. In 1887 Ugric epidemiologist I. Fodor having told about those who know the accumulation of anthrax bacilli in the heart of a sick creature, explaining this fact with a bactericidal effect blood serum . About the destructive effect of defebrinated blood of animals on microorganisms having reported in 1888 English bacteriologist G. Nutall. The power of blood, according to Nutall, knew after heatingїї at 56° stretch pіvgodini.

The bactericidal power of blood serum was especially reported by a German microbiologist and hygienist. G. Bukhner, which is confirmed that there is no difference in the bactericidal activity of serum and fresh blood. The speech behind which the bactericidal activity of the ore is created is called Aleksin . In 1890 r. E. Bering having demonstrated the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria in isolated blood vessels, diluted with blood, and waste plasma .

All this data was finally formed into a theory bactericidal immunity, which has become a different species humoral Vaughn's immunity theory was at the forefront of cliniform Mechnikov's theory.

Opposition against the phagocytic theory became even stronger when F. Lefler in 1887, and after him E. Ru showed that culture filtrate The diphtheria bacilli responds to the sensitive organism in the same way as a typical illness, as does a fresh culture of these bacilli. The authors went ahead, sickness diphtheria bacilli as a result of actions seen by them exotoxins .

Further development of this was directly rejected from the people of the Russian Federation R. Koha - A. Frenkel, E. Beringaі Sh. Kitazato, as they showed that sirovatka the blood of immunized animals has the power to protect them from the toxic effects of some pathogenic microbes, then it may antitoxic authorities. Vіkrittya pravtseva (Bering and Kitazato) and diphtheria (Bering) antitoxins formed the basis for deciphering the mechanism of developed immunity as the expression of the dry action of antitoxins, which is seen during the hour of illness. This type of immunity has been given a name antitoxin and support from the side of many doctors and pathologists.

1895 rub. German bacteriologist R. Pfeiffer together with the Russian doctor V.I. Isaevim showed that the culture is fresh cholera vibrio , inserted into the cherry empty immunized creatures are being destroyed in it. This is the phenomenon that denied the name " Isaev-Pfeiffer phenomenon ", turned out to be very specific in relation to different types of everyday life and formed the essence bacteriolytic immunity.

The theory of the antitoxin nature of immunity has developed over many years P. Erlikh. As a result of these investigations, a new field of medicine was published. serotherapy .

Let's reach out to a lot of rocks I. I. Mechnikov and other numerous scientists (A. M. Bezridka, Y. Yu. Bardakh, V. K. Visokovich, L. A. Tarasevich, G. M. Gabrichevsky, N. Ya. Chistovich, D. K. Zabolotny and in.) fought against the theory of phagocytosis. They showed that the skin from the known types of immunity at that time - bactericidal, antitoxin, bacteriolytic - is more likely to wear private character, and the activity of phagocytes is dry universal meaning to fight the body from most infectious diseases.