The results of the conversion activities of Peter I. Causes, objectives and results of the reformist activity of Peter I Transformation of the Army, Fleet

In the political system of reform, Peter the Great became the logical conclusion of the trends in the development of statehood, which were still in the so-called Moscow period. We are talking about a phenomenon, which different researchers call "Eastern despotism" (L. S. Vasilyev, M. P. Pavlin-Sylvanskaya), "Despotic autocracy" (V. B. Kobrin, A. L. Yurganov, V. M. Paneyakh), the third "universal state as a purpose" (English historian A. Toynby) or "State-Society" (French historian F. Stradel). Individual historians, however, identify the political system of Russia more difficult: in the XVIII century. As a noble paternalistic monarchy, based on the leading positions of the nobility in a social organization and in the public service, as well as on the guardianship functions of the monarch in relation to all subjects; In the XIX century As the "legitimate monarchy" - the lower stage of the legal state, in which the Office is based on the law, but the authorities are in the hands of the bureaucracy in the absence or the most scarce participation of public representatives (B. N. Mironov). Nevertheless, no matter what the features of the state-political system neither took into account these and other definitions, their general framework is recognized by several fundamental positions. Firstly, the state within the framework of such a model acts but the relation to society as a self-sufficient force, and representatives of the authorities connect several functions at once - rulers, mentors. The state of all elements of the public sector became an expression of the complete subordination of society of society. Any social activity of a person or a team could develop only in the direction of state ministry and only with a support for certain units of the state apparatus. Only lower stand-alone teams like peasant rural communities, Corporate Organs - the nobility governments established in 1785, the state monopoly of power were established for the first time, only Zemskiy and city institutions created during the "Great Reforms" of the 60-70s. XIX century Secondly, for such a political system, deep structural disorders in the field of law, in particular, in regulating the relations of power and property. Thirdly, a significant influence in the state acquire a political police and punitive organs directly accountable to the head of state. Fourth, it is militarization of the state apparatus and the dissemination of military principles to the sphere of civil life. The army becomes not only a reference to the organization of society, but also a kind of "forge" personnel for the entire bureaucratic corps. Fifth, the main social support of power and the conductor of reforms became a bureaucracy, the growth dynamics of which in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Significantly opera- 9 Kuruki told population growth indicators across the country. Peter I transforms strongly changed the nature and structure of the political system of Russia. First of all, the other was the idea of \u200b\u200bthe volume and rights of the supreme power. The power of Russian self-containers to Peter I still had a number of restrictions. For example, such a restriction was the "law", or "rank", under which it was implied by the tradition of life enshrined tradition. V. O. Klyuchevsky noted that "the Moscow king had extensive power over persons, not on the order." In addition, state institutions framed by the Supreme Power - Zemsky Cathedral, Boyarskaya Duma, a consecrated cathedral - participated in management and legislative work. Finally, individual monarchs in the XVII century. They gave armral records containing certain guarantees subject. Acts of customs resolutely crossed Peter I, opposing them his own formula of power: "His Majesty is a self-liberal monarch, who should not give anyone in the world about his affairs, but the power and power has its own states and land, Yako Christian sovereign, according to his will Baby management. " The subject was charged in the duty "All from the autocracy commanded without Raptivia and the fortification of the Creator" (Feofan Prokopovich. "True will of the monarch", 1722). This scheme remained almost unchanged and the entire XIX century, when the Supreme Power in Russia, despite the desire to legal justification of the actions undertaken, was even without a formal legal restriction of their powers. One of the expressions of this legalized by Peter I of the Arbitration of the Supreme Power was a decree of February 5, 1722, which canceled the former tradition of the Preconsession and arguing the right of the monarch himself to assign a successor to himself. With this decree, which, according to V. O. Klyuchevsky, turned the public law of Russia reversed, on a hosting rut, many political figures and historians tied the subsequent shocks of the throne. The rationale for unlimited authorities was carried out through the sacrarization (giving the sacred status) of the royal power and assigning a special charisma, mediated by the liquidation in 1721. The Patriarchate and the announcement of Peter I am an "extreme judgment" of the Spiritual College - Synod. The theory of metamorphosis - the transformation of Russia under the beneficial effects of Peter I, and the monarch's personal cult of the monarch. The chief ideolog of Petrovsky Time Feofan Prokopovich theoretically justified the omnipotence of the autocratic power. The pupil of the Roman Jesuit College, Prokopovich combined all European teachings about the rights of the monarch known to him in his arguments. Using the ideas of the theoreticals of the School of Natural Law of the Absolutist Direction - G. Grotia, S. Puffendorf, Prokopovich proclaimed such prerogatives of power, as independence and motionlessness (not subject to human court and punishment), overshadicity (itself is a source of laws), sacredity and inviolability, unity and inseparable. These exceptional properties were erected to two sources - for use ("God Boy Tsaria reign") and a public contract ("in the nationwide intention"), which "monarchy introduced and content to be of course". But unlike its European teachers who interposed on individual individuals, sacrificing their own original rights to the ruler, Prokopovich meant not individual, and collective alienation of its own rights in favor of the monarch. In numerous legislative acts of Peter I and the writings of its associates, other theoretical provisions were developed, which made the kernel of the new doctrine. This is, first of all, the idea of \u200b\u200b"common benefits", or "universal good", implied a wide range of measures to comprehensively strengthening the state. This idea almost completely corresponded to another concept - "state interest." Thus, the ideology of Petrovsky time put a sign of equality between state and public interest. These ideas were specified in relation to each of the estates. From the peasants "Common Use" required good-friendly classes (like the "arteries", the peasants had all the state) and the execution of state taxes, including the payment of pillow, and the recruitment of recruitment. For citizens, this meant an active part in the development of trade and industry, the payment of submissions, the supply of recruits, the maintenance of hospitals, orphanages, post-caring service. For nobles - a mandatory public service on a military or civil field, mastering the necessary knowledge and skills. The clergy was not allocated: he was charged not only for the concern for the moral health of the people, but also the content at their own expense of embankment and pattern warriors, and for monasteries - schools. The ideological calculations of Peter I, therefore, were aimed at the maximum mobilization of the whole society to the service. Rearrangement of the state building in the first quarter of the XVIII century. It was carried out not systematically, but as needs the emergence. At the same time, Peter I could not rely on an example of large-scale reforms in countries with a catching-up type of development (in Turkey, Japan and other unmarried countries of the world, they were held a lot later). Hence the need to focus on the experience of developed countries - Sweden, France, adapting it to local conditions. At the same time, the reforms in Russia fully reflected the basic principles of the so-called inorganic modernization. In general, these principles included: rationalization - the need to introduce reasonable, expedient rules and norms that determine the procedure for activities of any government agency, unification, i.e., the introduction of uniformity in the structure, states, receptions of the work of the same type of institutions, the centralization and differentiation of the control apparatus functions. (See: Medushevsky A. N. Approval of absolutism in Russia. Comparative historical study. M., 1994. P. 48.) The reforms of power and management covered all levels: the highest, central, local. In 1711, going to the Prut Camping, Peter I established the Government Senate from nine people. It was the highest body, he replaced the Boyar Duma, who had ceased to gather at the beginning of the XVIII century. Initially, the Senate was conceived by the king as a temporary body, operating during the "Others" period. The circle of his duties was not clearly designated. In 1718, the heads of the colleges - newly instituted authorities of the central government were included in the Senate. Since 1722, the Senate could include those of the scenery of the highest rank, which were not leaders of the central departments. The previous principle of the acquisition was recognized by erroneous on the basis of a completely rational argument: college leaders collected in the Senate could hardly effectively control their own work. Since that time, the Senate becomes a permanent employment and administrative body. He was instructed to control the justice, as well as the rights of the highest appellate instance (for an attempt to appeal his sentence, the death penalty was envisaged). In addition, the responsibilities of the Senate included control over the activities of the Central and Local Department, the State Management Institution, the conduct of revisions, recruit sets, land survey, finding new revenues for treasury, food stores and warehouses, the fight against natural disasters, etc. D. Accordingly, two branches were created in the field of activity in the structure of the Senate: the collected Chamber of Judicial Affairs and the Senate Office on Management. In addition, at the end of Petrovsky rule, the Senate included two supporting services: the Geroldmakerstendian office, or Gerold, replaced the abolished discharge order (its competence included the records of all the nobles, the registration of their official appointments and movements, as well as the development of noble gerrhobics), and rektembaster The office (she was engaged in the reception and analysis of complaints on the college and office, checking the foundation of appeals). A special place in the Senate system was given fiscal and the prosecutor's office. These organs carried out a general supervision of the work of the entire bureaucratic apparatus, for the behavior of citizens, identifying everything that "to harm the government interest may be. Piscalov was introduced both at the local and central levels. In the form of a remuneration, Fiscal received half of the property confiscated from them. Sophisticated accusation was written off on the "production marriage" and actually came the fiscal from the hands. In the late 1720s. The Fiscal Institute was abolished, and his frames partially joined the prosecutor's office. The position of the prosecutor was introduced by Peter I in 1722 in the colleges and offices, a prosecutor general was raised at the head of the Senate. The prosecutor's office was established in order to prevent and prompt response to offenses. The prosecutor general was considered by Yako Oko Emperor and the "Strangy states about the affairs of state." His position in the Chinovaya Hierarchy ranked first. He was responsible for organizing supervision in the state; Being the first among equal, directed the work of the Senators, led the Senate Office. Over time, the government of the prosecutor has grown to the volume, which has not been laid in the constituent acts of Peter I. from the middle of the XVIII century. And before the beginning of the XIX century. He actually focused in his hands the leadership of three branches of the Department - Finance, Interior and Justice. Throughout the XVIII century. Prosecutors' general changed infrequently - on this high post were appointed persons who enjoy personal confidence of the monarch and able to bear the heavy burden of official responsibility. The first prosecutor general was Pavel Ivanovich Yaguzhinsky. The reason for consistent strengthening the role of the prosecutor's rule was to the desire of the supreme power to influence the senators, to see their ambitions and excitement to self-government. The potential propensity of senators to the manifestation of independence or even opposition was foreseen and Peter I, so he did not make the post of senator to the nomenclature of officials of the table of ranks. Despite the fact that the Senate was not a legislative body, in certain periods, for example, in Elizabeth, Petrovna (1741-1761), he assertively invaded the legislative act: the overwhelming majority of the legislative acts of the Empress arose on his initiative. Often, the legislative role of the Senate performed in hidden forms: in the procedure for the interpretation of laws, as well as in successfully found (under the conditions of interdepartmental magicians) of the solution - the decision that had the regulatory value until the corresponding highest decree appears. Such precedents contributed to the formation of the concept of transition of political sovereignty during periods of transfers to the Senate, followed by the delegation of the authorities of the monarch. This idea was popular among the highest dynamics of the Empire in the last year of the life of Elizabeth Petrovna. Such a plan, which has taken advantage of the legal priority of the Senatorial Board of Supreme Power at the time of her legitimation, was rejected by the successor of Elizabeth Petrovna. However, the very idea of \u200b\u200bexpanding the powers of the Senate, including the transformation into the political representation of the whole nobility, was extremely alive in the liberal nobility environment. Under Peter I, the monarch's personal account was also created, which in 1704 inherited some functions of the Preobrazhensky order and the near office of the Boyar Duma. The office was transformed into the Personal Office of the King, who made his correspondence, including foreign policy, accounting for financial revenues in personal income and submissions to posts and awards. This includes acts to be published on behalf of the monarch. Along with the Senate, although in incomparably smaller volume, the office produced the government course and followed its implementation. Like a prosecutor General of the Senate, the Cabinet secretary had a huge influence in the bureaucratic environment and became the object of "distortion" from small and large officials, individuals. In 1717-1718. There was a restructuring of the central control apparatus. It was based on the principle of championship borrowed from the experience of European countries. Camelism is the organization of central institutions by clearly distinguishing their functions by branches of the Office. (Kamensky A. B. from Peter I to Paul I. Reforms in Russia of the XVIII century. Experience of a holistic analysis. M., 1999. P. 128.) New institutions were created - the colleges that had the same staff schedule and general principles of work. In their jurisdiction there were national issues. At the head of the colleges, the president stood, who, unlike the judge of the old order, did not dispose alone in his department. The guarantee from the heading arbitrariness was a collegial discussion of all the issues under consideration and the final decision by a majority vote. Members of the presence, or officials with the right to vote were the vice-president, four college advisers, four college assessors (assessor). The current technical work was performed by the secretary and the so-called orders, or stationery servants. In some colleges, as experts also appointed an adviser and secretary from Inomentsev. First call! I was a bit, but at the beginning of the 1720s. The list expanded. Three main tops were considered a collegium of foreign affairs, military, Admiralteyskaya (the fleet made by the affairs). Three other colleges were engaged in finances - the Camera College (owned by official fees), the counter-collegium (supervised government spending), revision-board (led public spending), two colleges - Berg and Manufactory - managed the industry, the first - metallurgical plants , the second is an easy industry enterprises. Commerce College sent foreign trade. The Justice College was provided with the surrounding and lower courts, recorded various private acts (borrowing, debt obligations, power of attorney, testament, documents for the sale of Votchin, etc.). The faithful board, in many respects, who took the functions of the abolished local order, disassembled land, disassembled the transactions for buying and selling land and fortress peasants, conducted cases of fraudary estates, runaway peasants, etc. In 172i, a spiritual board was created, or a synod . This authority took the place of the Patriarchal Throne, actually abolished by Peter I even earlier. From now on, church cases were solved by government officials appointed from the spiritual persons (and sometimes from secular) included in the same disciplinary framework as the rest of the bureaucracy. According to the type of collegium, the main magistrate was arranged, who managed the landing population and led by local magistrates. The only difference of the main magistrate from other colleges was his elected composition. It included representatives of the highest trade and industrial corporations of the city, and only the Ober-President and the president were crown (governmental) officials. All new central institutions rely on their work on the General Regulations (1720) - a set of rules developed by Peter I. Later, the general foundations of the activities were clarified in relation to each college in particular to it related regulations. The college reform of Peter I was also an attempt to separate management from the court, which became an important step towards approving the principle of separation of the authorities. In 1708-1709. The reform of local authorities was launched. The territory of the country was divided into 8 unequivocal provinces. Later, their number was brought to 11. As a result of regional reforms, 1708 and 1719, a three-member administrative and territorial division was developed: province - the province - County. Head of the provinces stood governors. Under the governor, Landra tips from 8-12 people who were eating the nobility of the province. The Landrartov Council was considered as necessary for the excessive development of a personal start in the management of the provinces. Under the governor, the provincial government was also established as part of Landrichter - the provincial judge (since 1719 he was replaced by the Nadal Court), the Ober-Commissioner who had made finances, Ober-Provitmister, headed by bread reserves for the army, and managers of palace estates. At the head of provinces, the number of which in 1719 reached 50, the governors were stood, under which Zemstvo Office was created. Since 1719, the province was transferred to the center of gravity in the regional administration, so the most important of them received a management similar to the provincial with the Governor-General at the chapter. The county management was represented by Zemsky Commissioners - elected from among the local nobility. Communication with the highest authorities, in particular with the Senate, was carried out through the provincial commissioners. Despite the efforts of Peter I to provide a slender control system from top to bottom, many regional institutions unlike centrally survived their creator. This was caused, firstly, difficulties with personnel - the constant deficit of the prepared officials was still sharply at the local level. Secondly, the overloading of the taxes of the approached population, especially after 1725, did a very problematic maintenance of an expensive local bureaucratic apparatus. Thirdly, in the public consciousness of even higher estates was deeply rooted by the hostility for the election service: this phenomenon explains the rapid coagulation of Peter I experiment with the Landrs Council. Finally, the state innovations of Peter I, in particular its regional reform, became after his death the object of fierce criticism from individual political groups at the court.

Russia is the end of the 17th century by the course of historical development itself, it was raised before the need for indigenous reforms, since only this way could provide a decent place among the West states and the East. Her backwardness was a serious danger to the independence of the Russian people. The industry was destroyed by its structure, and in terms of production, the industry of Western European countries has been significantly inferior. The Russian army in a significant part of its own part consisted of the backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. A complex and vaguely ordinary state apparatus, at the head of which the boyars aristocracy stood, did not meet the needs of the country. Enlightenment almost did not penetrate the popular masses, and even in the ruling circles there were a lot of illiterate people and at all illiterate people.

The renewal of Russia, conducted by Peter, was his personal business, an unprecedented violent, but at the same time necessary. The reforms touched the literally of all sides of the life of the Russian state and the Russian people.

There are different views on the consequences of Peter the Great reform.

In the letter of France in Russia, Louis XIV responded to Peter: "This sovereign discovers its desire for concerns about the preparation for the military business and on the discipline of its troops, on training and enlightening their people, to attract foreign officers and any kind of capable people. This image of action and an increase in power, which is the largest in Europe, make it formidable for its neighbors and excite a very solid envy. "

Voltaire also wrote repeatedly about Peter. The main value of Petrov's reform Voltaire determines the progress that the Russians have achieved over 50 years, other nations cannot achieve this for 500.

Westerners also positively assessed by Petrovsky reforms, thanks to which Russia became a great power and joined the European civilization.

Famous public figure P.N. Milyukov, in his works develops the idea that reforms were carried out by Peter spontaneously, from the case of the case, under pressure from specific circumstances, without any logic and plan, were "reforms without reformer". He also mentions that only "the price of the ruin of the country, Russia was erected into the rank of European powers." According to Milyukov, during the reign of Peter, the population of Russia within the boundaries of 1695 decreased by the contradictated wars.

All state activities of Peter I can conventionally divided into two periods: 1696--1715 and 1715--1725.

The peculiarity of the first stage was a hurry and not always thoughtful, which was explained by the leading of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily on the collection of funds for warfare, were carried out by a violent method and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, in the first stage, extensive reforms were carried out in order to modernize the lifestyle.

In the second period of reform were more planned and aimed at the internal arrangement of the state.

Medieval Moscow Rus has turned into a Russian empire. In its economy, the level and forms of the development of productive forces, the political strict, structure and functions of the authorities, management and court, in the organization of the army, in the class and thesis structure of the population, there have been huge changes in the country's culture and everyday life. The place of Russia and its role in the international relations of the time changed radically changed.

The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period was determined by the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms implemented by him. On the one hand, they had a huge historical meaning, as they contributed to the progress of the country, were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by serfs, serfs and were aimed at strengthening their domination. Therefore, the progressive transformations of Petrovsky time from the very beginning carried conservative features, which in the course of the further development of the country performed more and more and could not provide the elimination of socio-economic retardation. As a result of Petrovsky transformations, Russia quickly caught up with the European countries where the domination of feudal-serfdom preserved, but she could not catch up with the countries that the capitalist path of development. Peter's conversion activity was distinguished by indomitable energy, unprecedented scope and purposefulness, courage in the breakdown of suspended institutions, laws, lows and lifestyle and life. Perfectly understanding the great importance of the development of trade and industry, Peter implemented a number of events that satisfy the interests of merchants. But he strengthened and secured the fortress orders, justified the regime of autocratic despotism.

In general, Peter reforms were aimed at strengthening the Russian state and the introduction of the ruling layer to Western European culture with the simultaneous strengthening of the absolute monarchy. By the end of the board of Peter the Great, a powerful Russian empire was created, at the head of which was the emperor who had absolute power. During the reforms, Russia's feasibility and economic lag from a number of other European states were overcome, converted to the Baltic Sea, transformations were carried out in all spheres of life of Russian society. At the same time, the folk forces were extremely exhausted, the bureaucratic apparatus broke out, prerequisites were created (a decree of the throne) for the crisis of the supreme power, which led to the era of "Palace Dobor".

Among the decent attention of the individuals associated with the unforgettable pages of the chronicles of the state, many sonaries, but the acts of Peter the Great deserve special attention.

As well as those methods, styles, through which they were achieved, the results of the Board of Peter 1 are ambiguous. There is enough adherents of his reform practitioners, despite the fact that the goals scheduled for them were achieved by the most severe exploitation, coercion. Many critics that argue the abroad of the backwardness of the state of the Russian. But, in any case, it is impossible to underestimate the key role of this great ruler in the formation of Russia as a state with a fundamentally new regime of the Board.

Summing the line under the activities of Peter the Great

So, summing up the rules of Peter 1, first of all, it should be noted that the main totality of its activity is determined by the change of the ruling regime of power. Titanic efforts were reached a slim mechanism for managing the state, founded the stronghold of a powerful, strong, victorious fleet, army. Like a Phoenix bird, the country's economy resurrected from the asset did not just loudly declared themselves in the entire world's trade space, but also had the opportunity to have a considerable impact on individual issues of world politics. For some, the regime seemed absolutism, but it was precisely such an interpretation that radically changed the essence of the control.

Without changing in the life of the principles of the captain, Peter 1 managed to transform a huge, unbridled country into a military destination ship, where the Captain's united command determines the success of the maneuver. The crown of transformations was characterized by the changes in 1721, when Russia tried on the new title of "Empire", and the sovereign itself became the emperor.

Thanks to extraordinary data of the autocrat, Russia did not just overcome the swampy places. Not arranged stranded, masterfully bypassing pitfalls, reefs, she deliberately entered the expanses of the booming world ocean.

Great Board

Of course, not easy, but managed to take a worthy place in history, called the years of the board of Peter 1. The combat baptism occurred in deep childhood, when the Streetsky Bunk in Moscow began, made an indelible impression on the future monarch. Forced to be along with his mother in the villages belonging to the palace family, the teenager did not lose time for nothing. A cute childhood passion for combat craft was transformed into a serious transformation of Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments, which are repeatedly superior to the number and skill of the archer.

The history of the Board of Peter 1 began with the revival of the country of the indent, backward, ruined, without certain prospects for the future. The rehabilitation path was chosen hard, excellent from the European reform of society, when the changes went from the bottom from a little protected layers of society to its top. The so-called way in Russian assumed the dictatorship of the ruling layer of power, with the phased growth of the degree of despotism, on every new turn of development.

The activity of the head, the commander can conditionally be divided into several periods. During the first one, which covers the time interval from 1695 to 1715, it was often the adoption of thicken solutions. The only reasoned explanation of this may be the Northern War in which Russia was drawn. From here hasty, not always substantiated actions. The need for army has become a prerequisite for a hard way to collect money for these goals.

The time frame of the second gap of the board falls at 1715-1725. The main goal of the public activity envisaged the need for internal reorganization of the country. For this purpose, a number of reforms were carried out, lightning, superficial, but resulting from quite effective.

Reformed transformations of Russia

Characterizing the generally positive reform of Peter 1, briefly need to note a number of the most significant changes that affected the different areas of economic, industrial activities of the country.

Changes in government management

The prototype of the future of the Government Senate can be considered the creation of a Council of Ministers, who has taken on the fulfillment of the duties of the Duma Boyar, which has long lost confidence, and the effectiveness of its meetings was reduced to zero. The immediate goals of the Council included the management of the collection and spending of funds, with the obligatory accounting for the feasibility of the upcoming costs. Moreover, the priority direction has always remained equipping the army.

The transformation of the executive authority provided for the creation of 11 colleges, the forefather of the current ministries.

Peter 1's policy assumed the strengthening of local government, which contributed to the division of the Russian state into several provinces, at the head of each of which was the governor. In the initial interpretation, the decrees did not lead to anything other than the additional costs of the content of the administrative apparatus. But the second wave of reforms turned out to be more effective, which allowed to really arrange an absolute monarchy, in a robust tandem with a bureaucratic apparatus, to which the ruler relied.

The denunciations and secret impairment formed the basis of control over the activities of civil servants in order to move them in treasures, bribery, corructuring.

Army Transformation, Fleet

To achieve the creation of a powerful regular army and the mighty navy managed through the experience of foreign specialists. It was he lay on the basis of the Maritime Academy, which opened to upbringing his own officer composition, the nobility of the nobility.

Competent preparation of the general recruitment of recruits is similar to those that the formation of the Semenov and Preobrazhensky regiments was going on, ended with the triumph of the Russian army in the Northern War.

Church - Reformed innovations

The policy of Peter 1 church reform, providing for improving the church management hierarchy. Holy Synod replaced the activity of the patriarchate, turned out to be liquidated autonomy of the clergy. The church passed into unquestioned submission to the state.

There was a resistant trend towards religion tolerance. The green light was given from Christianity to veraes and denominations.

Economic transformations

Russia under Petra 1 received a new monetary unit - a penny, the residentialination was replaced by a submail. This made it possible to increase cash fees for the restoration and content of the army. Under the contract not only representatives of the peasants, but also landowners.

Industry, trade - the principle of cardinal reform

The misfortune of the Russian industry was a clear lack of qualified specialists. The results of the Board of Peter 1 on the development of this industry of economic activities of the state were marked by the involvement of specialists from abroad, as well as training and advanced training of their own forces abroad. This has taken advancing the development of another sphere - education.

The priority was the domestic producer, but a significant tax was imposed on the products of foreign production.

The result of the transformation was more than convincing - the first place of the Russian state in the expanses of the global industrial market.

Transformation of social policy

Russia under Petra 1 ceased to hear the fortress power, since the reforms of his rule were transferred to the translation of the fortress peasants in the category of personally free.

The peasants could be attached to manuff institutions, working on them, or to Earth.

Changed the principle of place management. The introduced urban self-government seemed to be a city magistrate, which was elected.

The results of the board of Peter 1 are more than obvious. The transformations never passed exactly, smoothly, especially in the conditions of the country in an anarchy, which was trying to occupy neighboring states.

However, Peter 1 reforms are briefly talking about the extraordinary abilities of the ruler, who were able to direct Russia to a fundamentally new way of development, which became an important factor for all future generations.

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The period of the reign of Peter the first (its transformation and reform) is accompanied by the complexity and inconsistency of the country's historical development at this time. On the one hand, his actions had a huge progressive value, went towards national interests and needs, contributed to a significant acceleration of the country's historical development and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by serfs, serfdom and were aimed at strengthening their domination. That is why the progressive transformations of Petrovsky time from the very beginning carried conservative features, which later performed more and more. As a result of Peter I Russia's transformations, the development of European countries, which prevailed the domination of feudal-serfdoms in a rapid pace.

This complexity and inconsistency with all force manifested itself in the conversion activities of Peter I, which was distinguished by an inexhaustible energy, unprecedented scope, courage in the fracture of the laws of the laws, lows, lifestyle and life. Perfectly realizing the importance of the development of trade and industry, Peter I carried out a number of activities that correspond to the interests of the merchants. But he, he strengthened the fortress orders, justified the regime of autocratic despotism. The actions of Peter I differed not only by decisiveness, but also extreme cruelty.

1. Formpeter's Foreign Foundation

Peter first was born on May 30, 1672. On this day, good prayers served across Moscow, shot from guns. Happy Father, Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich Romanov forbed the official debts, gave his neighbors, canceled harsh sentences to criminals. From everywhere in the royal palace, people with all sorts of gifts were driving.

Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich laid huge hopes on his youngest son. He himself was married for the second time in Natalia Kirillovna Naryshkina. From the first marriage with Maryia Miloslavskaya he already had three children - Fyodor, Ivan and Sophia. But they were unable to realize their father's plans into reality, as one of them was a sick, and the other is weak.

Before the death of his father, Tsar Alexei, Peter lived Balovna in the royal family. He was only three and a half years, when the father died. Tsar Fedor was the shaft father of his little brother and loved him very much. He kept Peter with himself in the Bolshoi Moscow Palace and cared for his training. In 1676, Alexey Mikhailovich died. Peter was then three and a half years, and his elder brother Fedor entered the throne, but in 1782 he died, without leaving the heirs of the throne.

Soon, Patriarch Joachim and Boyar proclaimed the king of the younger Tsarevich Peter, who was 10 years old at that time. However, the rights of Tsarevich Ivan were violated and his relatives could not reconcile with what had happened. The most intelligent and decisive among them were Tsarevna Sophia Alekseevna and Boyar Ivan Mikhailovich Miloslavsky. Against his enemies - the Naryshkina they raised the Strethogo army.

The Strels stated that Tsarevich Ivan was strangled and gave the list of "Motors-Boyar". In response to this, Sagittari began an open rebellion. On May 15, 1682, they, armed, came to the Kremlin. Queen Natalia Kirillovna brought the Palace Peter and Tsarevich Ivan to the Red Palace of the Palace and showed them to the Archers. However, the latter did not calm down, broke into the royal palace and in the eyes of the members of the royal family, brutally killed Boyhar Matveyev and many relatives of Queen Natalia.

Peter, being an eyewitty of these bloody scenes, caused surprise with his resistance - standing on a red porch, when the Archers picked up on the spears of Matveyev and his supporters, he did not change in his face. But the May horrors are indelible cramped into the memory of Peter, probably take the beginning and famous nervousness, and his hatred for the sortiers.

A week after the start of the rebellion - May 23, the winners demanded from the government so that the kings were appointed both brothers, and after a week, at the new demand of the Sagittarius, for the youth of the kings, the Board was awarded to Tsarevna Sophier. Petra's party was removed from all participation in state affairs.

After these events, Queen Natalia, along with his son, left for the village of Village Preobrazhenskoye. Peter suffered from childhood to military games. There, he formed two "funny" battalions from his peers, which in the future became real military units - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments - the main guard of Peter. Foreign officers were engaged in passage, and Peter himself passed all the soldiers, starting with the drummer. With great interest, the king began to study arithmetic, geometry, military sciences who taught His Dutchman Timmerman. The preserved notebooks of Peter testify to its persistent efforts to learn the applied side of the arithmetic, astronomical and artillery wisdom: the same notebooks show that these wisdom remained for Peter Mystery. But lathe art and pyrotechnics have always been favorite classes of Peter. Peter's passion for boats and ships is widely known. After Peter found in the village of Izmailov, an abandoned nautical boot in the village and learned to swim on him, he went to this business and under the leadership of the ship master of the Dutchman Brand Peter floated on his boots first along the Jauze River, and then on the Pereyaslav Lake, where he laid the first shipyard for the construction of ships. Many people seemed empty fun. Condisted in Peter and his proximity to the Germans. Peter was often in German Sloboda, because it was there that he could find explanations to many incomprehensible to the Russian people. Peter was especially close to the Scottish Gordon, General Russian Service, Scientist, and Swiss Leftor, Colonel, man very capable and cheerful. Under the influence of Leofut Peter used to noisy femal and rag. Unfortunately, neither the prince Boris Alekseevich Golitsyn Petra teacher nor his educator Nikita Zotov could not keep the young king from the bushes and noisy pirosh.

Due to the unfavorable conditions of childhood, Peter remained without the right formation and instead of theological scholastic knowledge acquired a military-technical. The young sovereign was an extraordinary cultural type for Moscow society. He did not have love for old customs and orders of court of Moscow life, but a close relationship with the "Germans" was formed. Peter did not like the government of Sofia, afraid of Miloslavsky and the Streltsov, who considered the support and friends of Sofia.

Tsarevna Sophia considered Peter's military classes with stupid madness, but was pleased that he did not climb the royal affairs. The mother, for the time being, calmly relate to the fun, but then decided that he was time to settle down, to lead a life worthy of the royal rank, and found him a bride. It was the only major and unsuccessful intervention of the mother in the personal life of Peter. In 1689, before the achievement of his seventeenth anniversary, Peter marries the daughter of Moscow Boyarin Evdokia Lopukhina. Queen Natalia hoped to distract her son from empty fun and make it more solid. In Russian, he is now considered adults and could claim an independent board.

With marriage Peter did not change his habits. The nurses of the characters of spouses and dislike the yard to the Lopukhina explains the fact that the love of Peter to his wife continued quite shortly, and then Peter began to prefer family life - hiking, in the regimentation of the Preobrazhensky regiment. A new occupation is shipbuilding - he distracted him further: with Yauza, he moved to Pereyaslav's lake with his ships with his ships and hung fun there even in winter.

However, Tsarevna Sophia did not want to lose the authorities and raised against Peter Streltsov. Peter learned about this night and, as if in a night shirt, sat on the horse and rode into the nearest forest, and from there in Trinity-Sergiev Lavra. According to historians, it was the only case when he was fatally frightened for his life, remembering his children's horror after the death of his father, when he had an uncle in his eyes in his eyes, they gave the other relatives of his relatives. From the same time he appeared - nervous tick and convulsions, which from time to time was thrown by his face and shakeed the body.

But soon Peter came to his senses and brutally suppressed the uprising. As a result, the Tsarevna Sophia was referred to the Novodevichi Monastery, the most active supporters were executed, and the rest were sent to the eternal catguard. So the reign of Peter began.

2. Peter's reforms first

In their reforms, Peter I could not hold a pre-developed plan and accurate sequence, because all its transformations occurred under the pressure of the military needs of this moment. And each of them gave rise to discontent, hidden and open resistance, conspiracies and struggle, distinguished by extreme fierce on both sides.

War with the Swedes took a protracted character, was difficult, unprofitable and dangerous. Peter completely drawn into military affairs. He, he fought in the first rows of his troops, then rushed to Arkhangelsk and in Voronezh in order to organize the defense of the northern and southern borders of the country from possible attacks of the enemy. In such conditions, the ruler could not think about systematic transformations. His main concern was to get enough people to successfully continue the war. The war demanded regular troops: he was looking for ways to increase them and the best device - and this circumstance pushed him to reform military affairs and reorganize the noble class and, in particular, the noble service.

The war demanded money - and in the process of their search, Peter increasingly aware of the need for applying reform and the implementation of changes in the position of the peoples of the country and the peasantry as a whole. Under the pressure of military needs, Peter hastily made a number of innovations that destroyed old orders, but who did not create anything new in the state management.

2.1 Reform of governing bodies and power

Of all the transformations of Peter, this reform occupied the central position. The old ordinar device was not able to cope with the established management tasks. The essence of the reform was reduced to the formation of a noble-boring centralized apparatus of absolutism.

All the completeness of the legislative, executive and judiciary focused in the hands of the king. In 1711, the Boyarskaya Duma was replaced by the highest body of executive and judiciary - the Senate. Members of the Senate were appointed the king on the principle of service suitability. In the implementation of the executive authority, the Senate issued decisions - decrees that had the power of the law. In 1722, a prosecutor General was raised to the Senate, which he had control over the activities of all government agencies. This control was performed through prosecutors appointed in all government agencies. They added a fiscal system headed by Ober-Fiscal. The duties of Fiscal reported on all the abuse of institutions and officials and violations of "treasury interest".

In 1717-1718, the outdated system of orders was replaced by colleges. Each board seemed to be a certain branch or management industry. The main points were considered three colleges: foreign, military and admiralty. Commerce and Industry issues were provided: Commerce, Manufactory and Berg-College. The last of them was made by metallurgy and mining industry. Three colleges were made by finance: Chamber Board - income, colleague, expenses, and the revision-board controlled income receipt, fees, taxes, duties, the correctness of spending the institutions of the amounts released by them. The Justice College was certified by civil proceedings, a promoted, established later, - noble land tenure. They added the main magistrate. A special place was occupied by the spiritual board, or the Synod, which controls the church. The college received the right to issue decrees on the questions they were bought.

In 1708, Peter first introduced the division of province in Russia. Several former counties were connected to the province, and several provinces in the provinces. The governor stood at the head of the province (or Governor's General), subordinate to Senate; At the head of provinces and counties - the governor. They consisted elected from the nobles of the Landrarats, later - the Zemstvo Commissioners who helped them in the management of the General Council and in the counties.

The new management system secured the active participation of the nobility in the implementation of its dictatorship in the field. But she simultaneously expanded the volume and forms of the service of the nobles, which caused his discontent. Thus, after the reform, the state was managed at the top of the officials, and at the bottom of the elected authorities, as before Peter. In general, the management of the management was significantly more complicated, and not in all parts it was enough to work out.

2.2 Military reform

Military reform was extremely necessary. Peter gradually abolished the troops of the old type. He destroyed the shooting shelves immediately after the Streetsky search of 1698 years. He gradually abolished the noble equal militia, attracting noble to ministry in regular shelves.

Peter increased the number of regular regiments, gradually making them the main type of field troops. For the recruitment of these regiments, a universal military service was introduced, the poll for the nobles, recruit for other classes. Only family clergy were liberated from service. Also, Peter joined the Cossack troops to his army as a permanent part.

The results of Peter's military transformations were amazing: at the end of the reign, he had an army, in which there were about 200 thousand regular troops (field and garrison) and at least 75 thousand Cossack regular; In addition, 28 thousand people served on the fleet, there were 48 large ships and up to 800 small ships.

2.3translation in the device

1. Server service. The fight against the Swedes demanded a regular army device, and Peter gradually transferred to the regular service of all nobles and serve people. The service for all servants has become the same, they served the magnificently, indefinitely and began service from the lower ranks.

All previous discharges of serve people were connected together, in one estate - a hatching. All lower ranks could eliminate the highest ranks. The order of such a service was accurately defined by the "Tabel about ranks" (1722). In this table, all the ranks were distributed on 14 ranks or according to their official seniority. Each who achieved the lower 14 rank could hoped to take the highest position and the highest rank. The "Tabel about ranks" replaced the principle of triviality by the principle of driving and service suitability. But Petr made out of the highest old nobility one concession. He allowed noble youth to receive the advantage of his favorite Guards shelves Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky.

Peter demanded that noblemen be sure to learn literacy and mathematics, and not trained deprived of the right to marry and get an officer rank. Peter limited the landowner rights of the noble. He stopped giving them the estate from the treasury when entering the service, and provided them with monetary salary. The noble faults and the estates forbade fragile when the transmission of sons (law "On Mayorate", 1714).

Peter's measures relative to the nobility aggravated the position of this class, but did not change his relationship to the state. The nobility and before and now had to pay for the right to land ownership by the service. But now the service has become harder, and land tenure is more constant. The nobility induced and demanded to facilitate their burden. Peter also brutally punish attempts to avoid service.

2. Urban class (Posad and urban people).To Peter I, the urban estate was a very small and poor class. Peter wanted to create an urban economically strong and active class in Russia, similar to what he saw in Western Europe.

Petr expanded urban self-government. In 1720, the main magistrate was created, which was supposed to take care of the city estate. All cities were divided into the number of residents to classes. Residents of the cities shared on "regular" and "irregular" ("bit") citizens. Regular citizens constituted two "guilds": the first was the representatives of capital and intelligentsia, in the second - small merchants and artisans. Craftsmen shared on "Come" on the crafts. Irregular people or "sleeves" were called a black-worker. The city was managed by a magistrate from the burgomistra elected by all regular citizens. In addition, urban affairs were discussed on landing sites or advice from regular citizens. Each city was subordinate to the main magistrate, bypassing any other local bosses.

Despite all the transformations, Russian cities remained in the same pathetic position in which they were before. The reason for this was the rank of Russian life and heavy wars distant from the trade and industrial.

3. Peasantry.In the first quarter of the century, it turned out that the foundation principle of taxation did not bring the expected increase in the receipt of filters.

In order to increase their income, the landowners were tired of several peasant families on one courtyard. As a result, during the census in 1710 it turned out that the number of courtyards from 1678 decreased by 20% (instead of 791 thousand courtyards in 1678 - 637 thousand in 1710). Therefore, a new principle of taxation was introduced. In 1718 - 1724 The census of the entire supply population of the male floor is carried out regardless of age and efficiency. All persons made to these lists ("Audivice Fairy Tales") were to pay 74 kopecks of the custodial clause per year. In the event of the death of the recorded file, the family of the deceased or community in which he entered the next revision was continued to pay. In addition, all consulting classes, with the exception of landlord peasants, paid the state of 40 kopecks of "Layer", which was to balance their duties with the insights of landlord peasants.

The transition to the cushion increases the number of direct taxes from 1.8 to 4.6 million, making up more than half of the budget arrival (8.5 million). The introduction of the pillow of Podachi increased the power of landowners over the peasants, as the representation of the audit fairy tales and the collection of Podachi was instructed by the landowners.

In addition to the pillow, the peasant paid a huge number of all sorts of taxes and fees designed to replenish the treasury, empty as a result of wars, the creation of a cumbersome and expensive apparatus of power and management, regular army and fleet, the construction of the capital and other expenses. In addition, the state peasants were obliges: road - on the construction and maintenance of roads, Yamskaya - for the transport of mail, government goods and officials, and so on.

At the end of the reign of Peter the Great, a lot has changed in the life of the estates. Nobles began to serve otherwise. The townspeople received a new device and benefits. The peasantry began to pay differently and on private lands merged with holopas. And the state determined their life by a message, and not right.

2.4 Church Reform

An important place in the formation of absolutism was occupied by church reform. In 1721, the patriarchy was eliminated, and his place was taken by the spiritual board, or the "Holy Government Synod". His chapter was the Ober-Prosecutor of the Synod appointed King. The elimination of the patriarchate, the establishment of Synod meant the elimination of the independent political role of the Church. It turned into an integral part of the state apparatus.

In parallel with this, the state strengthened control over the income of the Church from the monastery peasants, systematically brought significant part of them for the construction of the fleet, the content of the army, the disabled, schools and other expenses. The creation of new and limited number of monks in existing monasteries was prohibited. These actions of Peter caused displeasure to the church hierarchy and the black clergy, and was one of the main reasons for their participation in any kind of reaction conspiracies.

2.5 Financial changes

Peter I not only changed the direct file by making it a pillow, but also significantly increased indirect taxes, invented new sources of revenue.

For 8 years of war, he gained about 200 thousand soldiers, bringing the number of army from 40 to 100 thousand. The cost of this army is almost twice as expensive in 1709 than in 1701- 1.810.000 rubles. Instead of 982.000. In the first 6 years of war, more than 1,5 million were paid. Polish king in the form of subsidies. The costs of the fleet, artillery, the content of the diplomats, caused by the war were 2.3 million in 1701, 2.7 million in 1706 and 3.2 million in 1710. Already the first of these figures is too large compared to those funds that Petr received in the form of taxes from the population (about 1.5 million). It was necessary to look for additional sources of income.

The first time Peter took for its purposes from public institutions not only by their free funds, but also those amounts that were spent before other appointments: this was upset by the right course of the state car. The army was kept from the main income of the state - customs and kabatsky duties. To keep the cavalry, it took to appoint a new tax "Dragoon money", for the fleet - "ship", etc. However, these direct taxes turned out to be not enough, especially since they were going very slowly. Therefore, other sources of taxes were invented.

The earliest fiction of this kind, introduced by the Council of Kurbatov - the stamp paper, did not give the launches expected from her. The greater the value of the coin damage. A new measure to increase revenue was "perpetrators" in 1704 by older working articles and the return on the marks of the new. The total figure of government receipts under this article has risen by 1708 from 300 to 670 thousand rubles. annually. Next, the treasury took into the hands of the sale of salt, which brought to it up to 300 thousand rubles. Annual income, tobacco (this enterprise turned out to be unsuccessful) and other products that gave up to 100 thousand rubles. annually. As a result, at the end of the reign of Peter, government revenues increased to 10 more than millions.

Of course, this growth was not easy to come to the people. Peter wanted to help his subjects, improve their working conditions, lift well-being. He strongly encouraged trade. Knowing the poverty of Russian citizens, he advised them to connect to the company and attracted to the commerce of the nobles. In addition, the Peter encouraged the development of the industry, he himself started the factory, allowed them to move, and then gave to private hands. With it, the mineral wealth of the Urals was first appreciated, coal was found in the south.

Peter I was looking for funds of folk enrichment and wished the lifting of labor productivity. To do this, he applied the policy of protectionism, guarding every step of trade and production.

2.6 culture and life reform

The first secular school was opened in 1701 in the Moscow Sukhareva Tower "School of Mathemamhatikov and Navalskikh Science", which served as the basis for the Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg. The trace behind it creates medical, engineering, shipbuilding, mountain, navigator, craft schools. The emergence of a secular school required the creation of new textbooks. The creation of "arithmets to siren the science of numeral" L. Magnitsky, which was a textbook on all sections of mathematics was of paramount importance in 1703. Initially, when the need for specialists was especially great, the government admitted to the schools of children of applied classes, but at the end of the XVII century schools acquire the nature of the estate noble educational institutions. Next to them grows the system of spiritual seminaries.

For the printing of secular educational, scientific, political literature and legislation, new typography was created in Moscow and St. Petersburg. The development of the book printing was accompanied by the beginning of an organized book-selling, the creation of the State Library in 1714, the formation of the library of the Academy of Sciences, the emergence of major libraries in many aristocrats. Since 1703, the first Russian newspaper "Vedomosti" systematically published, which published information on the international, internal and cultural life of the time, the initiation of hostilities.

Created by Peter I Kunstkamera marked the beginning of the collection of collections of historical and memorial objects and rare, weapons, natural science collections and so on. It was the beginning of the museum business in Russia.

The logical outcome of all activities in the development of science and education was prepared for the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. Since there was no secondary school system in the country, the Academic University and Gymnasium were its integral part. The opening of the Academy, the majority of members of which were invited to Russia foreign scientists, took place at the very end of 1725.

From the first quarter of the XVIII century, the transition to urban planning and regular layout of cities is carried out. The appearance of the city defines no longer a cult architecture, and palaces and mansions, houses of government agencies and aristocracy in painting on the change of icon painting comes. In addition, attempts to create a Russian tetra include. Solemn holidays with illuminations, the execution of Cantat, the construction of triumphant arches became stronger.

Old familiar long-sleeved long-sleeved clothing was forbidden and replaced by a new one. Camoles, ties and jabs, widespread hats, stockings, shoes, wigs quickly outed in cities old Russian clothing. Big resistance and discontent caused the prohibition of wearing beards.

The establishment of the ensembles marked the beginning of the statement in the Russian nobility of the "Rules of Good Tone" and "noble behavior in society", and conversations on a foreign, mostly French.

Changes in everyday life and culture had a huge progressive value. But they even more emphasized the allocation of nobility into a privileged noble estate, turned the use of goods and culture achievements into one of the noblest privileges and were accompanied by a wide distribution of gallows and a contemptuous attitude towards the Russian language and Russian culture in the noble environment.

Output

Opinions on the Board and Reforms of Peter were strongly dispersed in his life. A small handheld of the closest companions of Peter held the opinions that they were very successful. People's Mass, on the contrary, was ready to agree with the statement of Raskolnikov, that Peter was an antichrist. Both those and others proceeded from the general idea that Peter made a radical coup and created a new Russia, not similar to the previous one.

The new army, fleet, intercourse with Europe, finally, European appearance, European technique - all these were facts that were stuck: they were recognized everything, to disagree only in their evaluation. The fact that one was considered useful, others were recognized by harmful to Russian interests; that some considered a great merit before the Fatherland, and others saw treason to other legends. Both glances could lead actual evidence in their favor, as both elements were mixed in Peter reforms - both necessity, and chance.

The scale of the changes that occurred during the reign of Peter are huge. The territory of the country increased significantly, which after many centuries of the struggle received a way to the sea and eliminated the state of political and economic isolation, reached the international stage, took a prominent place in the system of international relations and turned into a great European power. In Russia, at this time, the manufactory of the industrial industry arose, in which powerful metallurgy acquired a particular importance. The nature and size of the internal and foreign trade and the volume of economic ties with other countries have radically changed. A powerful regular army and fleet were created, a huge step in the development of culture and education was made. A strong blow to the spiritual dictatorship of the church in culture, education and other areas of the country's life was inflicted. The old routine patriarchal life was taken.

All these changes occurred in the conditions of entry of feudal-serfdom in the decomposition stage and the origin in their depths of new bourgeois relations. Aimed at the elimination of the country's technical and economic and cultural backwardness, at acceleration and development, they had a huge progressive value.

Their exercise was largely due to the activities and identity of Peter the first, is perhaps the largest statesman of pre-revolutionary Russia, with its exceptional purposefulness, energy by the courage with which he broke the routine order and overcomed countless difficulties. An outstanding politician, a military leader and diplomat, he knew how to correctly assess the situation, allocate the main thing, to make the right conclusions from errors and failures.

Wide knowledge that showed a great interest in literature, history, right, art, crafts and natural sciences, he perfectly knew the military affair, shipbuilding, shipment and artillery. He knew how to pick up active and energetic fans in each of the industries and spheres of state activities.

But all changes and reforms were carried out on a serfdom, serfdom, and were aimed at preserving and strengthening the feudal-absolutist system, the estimated structure of society, thesis and privileges of the dominant class. They were accompanied by the spread of serfdom for new territories and new categories of the population, on new areas of economic life. It slowed down the formation of capitalist relations in the country, the economic and cultural development of the people and did not allow to liquidate the feasibility and cultural backwardness of the nation. The negative side of the changes and transformations was organically connected with the activities of Peter I, for which the extreme cruelty, arbitrariness, justification and the implementation of the principles of any limited autocratic arbitrariness were characterized.

I think that the motto of that time could be a line of Pushkin: "My friend, dedicate the souls of the beautiful impulses!" Peter the Great did not regret neither the strength nor the health in the name of the prosperity of Russia, tried that his associates and the entire Russian people followed his example.

Bibliography

1. The history of the USSR from ancient times until the end of the XVIII century. Ed. B.A.Rebakova. M., Publishing House "Higher School", 1975.

2. Klyuchevsky V.O. "Historical portraits", M., Publishing house "Pravda", 1991.

3. Pavlenko N.I. "Peter I and his time", M., Publishing House "Enlightenment", 1989.

4. Platonov S.F. "The textbook of Russian history for high school. Course systematic ", M., Publishing House" Link ", 1994.

5. Solovyov S.M. "Readings and stories on the history of Russia", M., Publishing House "Pravda", 1989.

6. Cheese S.N. "Pages of History", M., Publishing House "Russian", 1983.

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